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96 DESIGN IN NATURE<br />
leaders of modern science, averred " that the chasm between the inorganic and organic is being filled up, and t a<br />
organisms are highly differentiated portions of the matter forming the earth's crust and its gaseous envelope. n<br />
like manner, Professor Huxley, also in the vanguard of science, stated " that protoplasm can originate only m that<br />
into which it dies—the elements—the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen of which it is found to consist.<br />
Hydrogen, with oxygen, forms water ; carbon, with oxygen, carbonic acid ; and hydrogen, with nitrogen, ammoma.<br />
Similarly water, carbonic acid, and ammonia form, in union, protoplasm. . . . Protoplasm, then, is but an aggregate<br />
of physical materials, exhibiting in combination—only as was to be expected—new properties. .<br />
. . All vital action<br />
whatever, intellectual included, is but the result of the molecular forces of the protoplasm which displays it.^<br />
Protoplasm, according to Huxley, is the formal basis of hfe. " It is the clay of the potter, which, bake and paint<br />
it as he will, remains clay, separated by artifice, and not by nature, from the commonest brick or sun-dried clod.<br />
Thus it becomes clear that all living powers are cognate, and that all living forms are fundamentally of one<br />
character." Huxley regards protoplasm as identical in composition and uniformly diffused in plants and animals ;<br />
that is, not contained in cells. In this he differs from the majority of German histologists, who still regard the<br />
cell as the precursor and parent of protoplasm. With them " there is as yet no matter of life ; there are still cells<br />
of life." Huxley claims for protoplasm a threefold unity—a unity of faculty, a unity of form, and a unity of<br />
substance. Each of these positions has been disputed, and properly ; for how, say Huxley's opponents, can there<br />
be unity of substance if the elements, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, which constitute the protoplasm, are<br />
combined in varying quantity in different kinds of protoplasm ? If there is not unity of substance there cannot<br />
be unity of form, and if there is neither unity of substance nor of form there cannot possibly be unity of function.<br />
The unity of substance of protoplasm depends for its proof mainly upon ultimate chemical analysis. Ultimate<br />
chemical analysis, however, teaches next to nothing in such cases. " Ozone is not antozone, nor is oxygen either,<br />
though in chemical constitution all are ahke." Further, some protoplasm, in addition to carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,<br />
and the Germans have shown that the cells which produce<br />
and nitrogen, contains a certain proportion of sulphur ;<br />
protoplasm contain in some cases glycogen, in others cholesterine, in others protagon, and in others myosin.<br />
According to Professor Strieker protoplasm varies almost indefinitely in consistence, in shape, in structure, and in<br />
function. In some cases it is fluid, in others semi-fluid, in others firm and resisting. Occasionally it is club-shaped,<br />
bottle-shaped, spindle-shaped, branched, prismatic, polyhedral, &c. One kind produces fat, another pepsine,<br />
another pigment. There is a protoplasm for each of the tissues—nerve, brain, bone, muscle, &c. There is, further,<br />
a protoplasm for the several kinds of plants and animals, each producing its own kind.<br />
Analogous in many respects to the protoplasm of Huxley is the bioplasm of Professor Lionel S. Beale. This,<br />
as its name imphes, is also an elementary life-stuff. It is undifferentiated, and in this respect is identical with<br />
Huxley's protoplasm. Beale and Huxley differ as to the mode of production of their elementary hfe-stuffs. Beale<br />
affirms that they are the product of the vital forces per se ; Huxley of the physical ones. Beale attributes all<br />
organisation to life, as apart from chemical, physical, and other forces. According to him, the bioplasm or<br />
germinal matter is the same always and everywhere, and consists of small masses of a structureless, colourless,<br />
and transparent ^'iscid substance. Beale claims for his bioplasm or life-matter similar properties to that claimed<br />
by Huxley for his protoplasm. To both the same objections apply. Beale grounds the homogeneity and identity<br />
of his bioplasm on microscopical research, and Huxley, as explained, upon ultimate chemical analysis. Neither,<br />
however, is trustworthy. Experience teaches us that the microscope is hmited in its powers, and that chemical<br />
analysis, instead of simply disintegrating and breaking up a body into its ultimate elements, not unfrequently<br />
produces new combinations, and consequently new substances. On carefully considering this matter, I am still<br />
of the opinion which I expressed in 187.3, that both Huxley and Beale are in error, and that protoplasm is<br />
not the product of either the physical or the vital forces per se, but of both combined. Beale thus expresses<br />
himself : " Force (that is, physical force) is actually opposed to construction ; and before anything is built up<br />
the tendencies of force must be overcome by formative agency or power. . . . The<br />
vital power transcends altogether<br />
physical forces ; for it controls, guides, directs, arranges ; while the latter are controlled, are guided, are directed, &c." "<br />
In proof of the foregoing, Beale states that a tree grows against gravitation. This is quite true ; but it is equally<br />
true that in such cases the physical forces of capillarity, osmosis, chemical affinity, &c., as I endeavoured to show<br />
in my " Lectures on the Physiology of the Circulation in Plants, in the Lower Animals, and in Man " {Edin. Med.<br />
Journ., 1872), are largely employed. The vital forces may override or bridle certain physical forces while they<br />
act in conjunction with others. In like manner nature may override or bridle one or more of the physical forces<br />
by employing stronger physical ones ; but the physical forces subdued or inoperative for the time being are not<br />
on this account destroyed. They are ready for use when the proper time arrives. Capillarity and osmosis (purely<br />
' Huxley, as epitoriiised liy .T. Hutchison Stirling, LL.D., to whose able critique on " Protoplasm" the reader is referred,<br />
^ " Life Theories and Religious Thought," 1871, pp. 6 and 78.