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140 DESIGN IN NATURE<br />
and all the actions of plants and animals to cells, appears from this, that they are not agreed as to what consti-<br />
tutes a cell. . 1 rpi, 11<br />
The value of the cell in the vegetable and animal kingdoms cannot, nevertheless, be over estimated, ine cell<br />
in biology forms the structural and physiological centre around which life in all its forms may be said to revolve.<br />
It exhibits in its multifarious changes well-marked lines of communication and force. The cell has a Hterature<br />
of its own, but this is so extensive as to forbid my dealing with more than a fringe of it. I will therefore confine<br />
myself to a consideration of what I regard as the more important parts. I will also limit my observations on the<br />
cell itself to its position as a separate living entity, as a centre of reproduction, nourishment, growth, movement, &c.<br />
A cell may be defined as a microscopic object measuring from the three-thousandth to the four-thousandth of<br />
an inch in diameter, which is variously constituted and shaped. Thus it varies in chemical composition : it also<br />
varies in shape, being round, oval, caudate, branched, polygonal, cyhndrical, stelUform, fusiform, &c. The cell,<br />
as a rule, is round to begin mth, but its shape is modified by pressure and various other conditions.<br />
A typical cell consists of three parts, each of which is porous and permeable, namely, the cell wall or envelope,<br />
the nucleus contained within the cell wall, and the matter contained between the cell wall and the nucleus._ These<br />
FiG. 32.—Typical cell consisting of a cell<br />
wall or envelope, cell contents, a nucleus, and<br />
a nucleolus, a, Cell wall ; b, cell contents ;<br />
c, nucleus ; d, nucleolus. The darts, r, f, represent<br />
the endosmotic or ingoing nutrient<br />
currents, by which the cell is fed ; the darts<br />
g, h, the exosmotic or outgoing currents,<br />
whereby the cell rids itself of waste products<br />
and injiuious substances.<br />
The cell wall, cell contents, nucleus, and<br />
nucleolus are osmotic media, and, when the<br />
cell is placed in suitable fluids, its vital and<br />
mechanical properties are at once evoked<br />
(the Author).<br />
three parts are essentially different in structure and ultimate composition, but<br />
are necessary to each other ;<br />
the cell taking in nourishment, giving out waste<br />
products, reproducing itself, and carrying on all the functions of hfe. The<br />
matter contained between the cell wall and the nucleus is variously designated<br />
protoplasm, cell sap, cell contents, &c. The nucleus is, for the most part,<br />
round or oval. It varies in size, and is sometimes soUd, sometimes hollow,<br />
and sometimes granular. It may contain one or several granules, and these,<br />
when they exist, are known as nucleoh. I subjoin an original sketch of a cell<br />
in which the several points referred to above are indicated (Fig. 32).<br />
The manner in which cells take in nutrient materials and extrude waste<br />
products by the aid of endosmotic and exosmotic currents will be readily<br />
understood by a reference to the subjoined figure, where the darts pointing to<br />
the interior of the cell indicate the ingoing centripetal nourishing currents,<br />
and the darts pointing to the exterior of the cell the outgoing centrifugal<br />
waste -product currents (Fig. 32).<br />
The normal life of the adult cell affords a striking example of vital and<br />
mechanical forces working side by side and in harmony to bring about a<br />
common result. The osmotic currents are essentially and intrinsically mechani-<br />
cal in their nature, but the cell hves, and determines, within limits, the nature<br />
and the extent of the currents. In other words, it selects and takes in by<br />
the endosmotic currents certain materials which it absorbs and assimilates<br />
the assimilated materials being useful and necessary—wliile it rejects and<br />
gives out by the exosmotic currents other substances which are inimical to its well-being and which, if retained,<br />
would prove injurious.<br />
That cells can and do discriminate, and that they select and reject within limits, is proved by the behaviour<br />
of animal cells as a class. Thus, some cells secrete and others excrete : the secreting and excreting cells are supphed<br />
with, and act upon, the same blood. Of the secreting cells some produce saliva, others gastric juice, others bile,<br />
and so on. Of the excreting cells some furnish perspiration, some urine and other waste products. The aggregates<br />
of cells form plants and animals ; they also form the great majority of the vegetable and animal tissues—cellular<br />
tissue, woody fibre, muscle, nerve, bone, hairs, feathers, &c. ;<br />
but these several and diverse structures are the product<br />
of one and the same vegetable sap, or, in the case of animals, one and the same blood, from which it follows that<br />
the several kinds of cells are endowed with special properties to bring about certain predetermined results. In<br />
the economy of cells, the division of labour is carried to an extreme. Cells, as structural units, are invested with<br />
high powers. They hve, grow, and reproduce themselves. They perform the bulk of the work in plants and<br />
animals. They are conditioned, and work to given ends, singly and in combination. Their work is duly appor-<br />
tioned : they do nothing in a hap-hazard way. They reproduce, build up, and keep the organism going in all its<br />
parts. They, however, do this according to a fixed plan and under supervision. Cells can only work within<br />
prescribed Umits. They have no power, in the normal or healthy condition, to change either their constitutions<br />
or the role to be played by them. Least of all can thej^ change or abrogate the function assigned them in the<br />
great scheme of organic nature.<br />
The importance of the cell in life and organisation is universally admitted. Indeed the majority of physio-