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DESIGN IN THE REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH OF ANIMALS 373<br />
injured, although it has contributed a quota of its own living matter to the offspring ; that offspring having in<br />
turn the power of reproducing itself by germination. Eeproduction by budding is well seen in colonies of corals.<br />
Like reproduction by division, it is a vital process.<br />
In addition to the foregoing there is reproduction by alternate generations, that is, where two generations are<br />
required to form an individual. The medusa known as Cladonema radiatum affords an example. This animal<br />
is the offspring of the Stauridium or cross-polype of Dujardin. The Stauridium grows upon a stalk hke a polype,<br />
and produces rounded gemmules, which gradually assume the appearance and structure of medusae. In due course<br />
they become detached and float away as medusae. The medusae reproduce themselves sexually, but from the eggs<br />
of the medusae only stauridia can be developed. There is thus an intermediate stage in the reproduction of medusee.<br />
Here again reproduction is unquestionably a vital act. It begins and terminates in living matter which is not<br />
goaded into activity by externalities.<br />
A somewhat similar arrangement obtains in the larvae of certain dipterous insects (Cecidomyia, Miastor), where<br />
maggots produce maggots, and where the first race of maggots is devoured by the second race, which is the only<br />
one to survive, and from which the insects referred to are ultimately produced.<br />
In the case of butterflies there is first the egg, then the grub or caterpillar, then the chrysalis, and finally the<br />
completed insect. Von Siebold has shown that hibernating fertilised female wasps lay eggs in the spring from<br />
which females mainly, with occasional males, are produced. The spring colony of female wasps in turn lays eggs from<br />
which males are developed.<br />
In the case of the tapeworm [Tcenia solium) there are not only alternate generations but two distilnct sexual<br />
organs and elements in each segment of the mature individual. If the fecundated eggs of the tapeworm be eaten<br />
by an animal, say the pig, young tapeworms are developed in the flesh of the pig in the form of cysts, and constitute<br />
the so-called measly pork. This is the first stage in the development of the tapeworm. In the first stage the tapeworm<br />
consists of a bladder-like cyst {scolex) with the head of the future tapeworm plus four curved booklets<br />
inverted or concealed in the body of the cyst. If the measly pork be eaten by man, or other animal, the cysts con-<br />
tained in it in due time develop into tapeworms in the alimentary canal. This they can readily do, and in the<br />
following way. The cysts are introduced into the alimentary canal with the food. Once there the cysts or future<br />
tapeworms evert and free their heads armed with the four curved booklets referred to. By means of the booklets<br />
they fix and anchor themselves in the mucous lining of the alimentary canal, from the contents of which they derive<br />
nourishment by absorption. They grow apace in flat, elongated, quadrilateral segments (proglottides), very small and<br />
slender in the vicinity of the head, but gradually increasing in size as this is receded from. The segments ultimately<br />
measure an inch or more in length and fully a quarter of an inch in breadth ;<br />
each mature segment containing<br />
male and female organs (plus male and female elements), and constituting a separate individual. The adult<br />
segments are crowded with impregnated eggs, and when voided by the anus are in a condition to be carried into any<br />
animal which is unfortunate enough to give them a lodging and act as a host. This is the second and final stage<br />
of development. Two separate animals or hosts are required for the reproduction and continuance of the tapeworm<br />
; but it will be observed that in both the first and second stages of reproduction the reproductive acts are<br />
spontaneous, vital, and in no way due to irritation or extraneous stimulation. The impregnated eggs become<br />
encysted worms in the first host and tapeworms in the second host. The tapeworms take advantage of the two<br />
sets of conditions supplied by the two hosts, and profit by both.<br />
In plants and animals where the male and female organs of generation and elements are situated in different<br />
individuals, something of the nature of coitus or mutual contact is indispensable. The contact in the case of plants<br />
is brought about by winds, insects, and other means. Reproduction by coitus, or its equivalent, can be readily<br />
studied in the fish. If spawning salmon be watched it will be seen that after much serious fighting on the part of<br />
the males for possession of the females, a male and female salmon pair. They proceed to a convenient spot in<br />
the bed of the river, preferably where sand and gravel occur, and scoop out an elongated trough in which the female<br />
fish places herself and deposits her spawn. The male fish in turn occupies the trough and deposits his milt over the<br />
spawn. In some cases the female turns on her side and the male rushes at her and discharges his milt in passing.<br />
The male and female elements commingle, the spawn is fertilised, and the reproductive act completed. It only<br />
remains for the parent fish to cover up the fertilised spawn with sand and gravel to protect it from other fish,<br />
birds, &c. In a short time the young salmon are hatched out, and what is most curious, each young fish is provided<br />
with a bag of pabulum, from which it obtains nourishment until it can develop a mouth, an alimentary canal, and<br />
a vent, when it is in a condition to obtain food from without. The history of reproduction in the fish shows clearly<br />
that the entire reproductive act is vital in its nature, and not only vital but voluntary. In some cases, as in the<br />
viviparous fishes (shark, skate, blenny, &c.), the young are produced alive. Here certainly there is no room for<br />
irritation or extraneous stimulation.