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GEOLOGY AS BEARING ON CREATION 229<br />
operative by turns. Gravitation, attraction, repulsion, condensation, rarefaction, cohesion, adhesion, capillarity,<br />
osmose, &c., all take part in building up the inorganic and organic kingdoms. Matter (inorganic and organic)<br />
and force (physical and vital) are each and all under law, and the same law ; and the actions and reactions which<br />
everywhere abound are, in every instance, means to ends. The laws which obtained at the dawn of creation<br />
obtain now. Nothing has suddenly leapt into existence. Time or duration is a factor in the production of<br />
everything the universe contains.<br />
§ 39. Geology as Bearing on Creation.<br />
The formation of the crust of the earth and of the plants and animals which inhabit it may be said to furnish<br />
a history of creation on a small scale. Geology assures us that the surface of our globe is the product of<br />
innumerable forces acting for long periods on heterogeneous substances, and that these forces are at work at<br />
the present day. They consist of water action (seen in rain, waterspouts, rills, rivers, lakes, and oceans), which<br />
produces sediments and strata of various kinds, especially rocks ; atmospheric and cUmatic action, which results<br />
in denudation ;<br />
frost and glacier action, which, with river action, scoops out valleys and transfers huge masses of<br />
foreign matters long distances ; volcanic action, which begets great upheavals and dislocations of existing hori-<br />
zontal strata and gives rise to new strata ; subsidence and elevation of certain areas at different periods (also<br />
resulting in dislocation), whereby islands are engulphed or formed, and continents diminished or increased in<br />
extent, &c. These forces, continually at work in the past, as in the present, have produced the conditions which<br />
modem physical geography reveals.<br />
The formation of chalk furnishes a striking illustration of natural forces at work on a large scale : " Great<br />
light has recently been thrown upon the origin of the unconsoHdated white chalk by the deep soundings made in<br />
the North Atlantic, previous to laying down, in 1858, the electric telegraph between Ireland and Newfoundland.<br />
At depths sometimes exceeding two miles, the mud forming the floor of the ocean was found, by Professor Huxley,<br />
to be almost entirely composed (more than nineteen-twentieths of the whole) of minute Rhizopods, or foraminiferous<br />
shells of the genus Globigerina, especially the species Globigerina bulloides. The organic bodies next in quantity<br />
were the sihceous shells called Polycystinem, and next to them the sihceous skeletons of plants called Diatomacex,<br />
and occasionally some siliceous spiculae of sponges were intermixed. These he supposed to be connected by a mass<br />
of living (?) gelatinous matter to which he gave the name of Bathyhius,^ and which he thought contained abundance<br />
of very minute bodies termed Coccoliths and Coccospheres, which have been detected fossil in chalk.<br />
" Sir Leopold MacCHntock and Dr. Wallich have ascertained that ninety-five per cent, of the mud of a large<br />
part of the North Atlantic consists of Globigerina shells. But Capt. Bullock, R.N., lately brought up from the<br />
enormous depth of 16,860 feet a white, viscid, chalky mud, wholly devoid of Globigerinse. This mud was perfectly<br />
homogeneous (?) in composition, and contained no organic remains visible to the naked eye. Mr. Etheridge, however,<br />
has ascertained by microscopical examination that it is made up of Coccoliths, Biscoliths, and other minute<br />
fossils Hke those of the chalk classed by Huxley as Bathybius, when this term is used in its widest sense. This<br />
mud, more than three miles deep, was dredged up in lat. 20° 19' N., long. 4° 36' B., or about midway between Madeira<br />
and the Cape of Good Hope.<br />
" The recent deep-sea dredgings in the Atlantic conducted by Dr. Wyville Thomson, Dr. Carpenter, Mr. Gwyn<br />
Jeffreys, and others, have shown that on the same white mud there sometimes flourish Mollusca, Crustacea, and<br />
Echinoderms, besides abundance of siliceous sponges, forming on the whole a marine fauna bearing a striking<br />
resemblance in its general character to that of the ancient chalk."<br />
The progressive formation of strata can at present be seen in the deltas of the Nile, Mississippi, and other large<br />
rivers, and in the beds of the several oceans ;<br />
the upheavals are seen in the occasional and violent action of existing<br />
volcanoes ; the glacier action is witnessed in Switzerland and other mountainous countries ; denudation from wind,<br />
raia, frost, &c., is constantly going on in hills, mountains, and valleys, and in glacial, water, and tidal courses. The<br />
elevation and subsidence of land, though usually a very slow process, is an every-day occurrence. It only becomes<br />
sudden and pronounced when due to volcanic action. Sir Charles Lyell remarks : " Such changes have actually<br />
occurred in our own days, and are now in progress, having been accompanied in some cases by violent convulsions,<br />
while in others they have proceeded so insensibly as to have been ascertainable only by the most careful scientific<br />
observations, made at considerable intervals of time. ... In parts of Sweden, and the shores and islands of the<br />
Gulf of Bothnia, proofs have been obtained that the land is experiencing, and has experienced for centuries, a slow<br />
upheaving movement."<br />
1 The gelatinous supposed living matter met with at the sea bottom, and named Bathybius by Huxley, was found on closer examination to<br />
be a chemical product. Huxley's theory on the subject was consequently abandoned by himself.