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NERVE REFLEXES IN ANIMALS 267<br />
taneous intrinsic molecular changes in the brain and nerves, which materially differ from the changes produced<br />
by the crude, artificial stimuli of the modern, mechanical school of physiology. Volitions, strictly speaking, are<br />
traceable to living, sentient, conscious matter asserting itself directly by means of its nerves, muscles, and other<br />
structures placed at its disposal by the First Cause to accomplish certain ends. Vohtions are spontaneous, inde-<br />
pendent acts. They require no prompting, no motive, and least of all any extraneous stimulation or external jogging.<br />
The mind, according to the majority of psychologists, is at liberty to act as it please. Those who espouse the<br />
doctrine of " Free Will " maintain that they can do what they like in their own way and at their own time. I'hey<br />
are not obUged to act in obedience to certain movements and motives which they can altogether ignore and disregard.<br />
The doctrine of " Free Will " has been challenged by those who advocate the doctrine of " Necessity," and who are<br />
known as " Necessitarians."<br />
The Necessitarians assert that as everything in the universe is under law and order and conditioned, so the<br />
operations of the mind are not free, but are hmited and pre-determined, and that intellectual man, in common with<br />
everything, organic and inorganic, can only perform a certain rule. The Necessitarians have certain facts and<br />
analogies in their favour, but it cannot be denied that deep in man's nature a something pleads strongly for the<br />
recognition and exercise of Free Will.<br />
An attempt has been made to reconcile the opposing doctrines by falling back on the omniscience of the<br />
Creator, Who has made everything that is made, and Who knows everything which has happened, is happening,<br />
or can happen. To such a being there can be no such thing as " Free Will " and " Necessity " in the sense in which<br />
these terms are commonly employed. Free Will and Necessity are human conceptions, and apply to hmited intelh-<br />
gences. The mind, while apparently free in the opinion of certain individuals, is nevertheless under restraints<br />
which rob it of much of its supposed hberty of action. Man, in exercising his intellect, as he thinks independently,<br />
has behind him an inscrutable power which unerringly guides him in spite of himself to do some things and leave<br />
others undone. The exercise of his intellect is not wholly under his control. To the prescient mind, the doctrines<br />
of Free Will and Necessity are not altogether incompatible. If certain things are fated to occur they will occur,<br />
Free Will and Necessity notwithstanding. The theologians have had much to do with bringing the doctrines of<br />
Free Will and Necessity into prominence, for, say they, if all our actions are pre-determined we are not responsible<br />
agents, and cannot be punished for doing what we could not avoid doing. There is no place for either punishment<br />
or reward under such circumstances. On the other hand, if we are free to act as we please, and to do or leave undone<br />
certain acts, then and then only does man become a responsible agent. He is then a fitting subject for both<br />
punishment and reward. The subjects of Free Will and Necessity do not, strictly speaking, fall within the scope<br />
of the present work, and need not be further discussed.<br />
If a part of a plant or animal dies or is lopped off, hj so much is the hfe of the plant and animal impaired,<br />
and its usefulness dinainished. It is not permissible, even in the highest animals, to speak of any structure or<br />
function exclusively by itself. Every part of a hving animal is essential to its integrity and well-being. This is<br />
true even of the extra-vascular tissues, epidermis, hairs, nails, horns, hoofs, &c. The parts of the most highly<br />
differentiated plants and animals are aU united structurally and functionally, and it is never quite safe to isolate<br />
either structure or function. From the beginning it is so. In the embryo of plants and animals there is com-<br />
munity of structure and function : development<br />
and growth necessitate this. Whatever differentiation occurs later<br />
on in the shape of special organs does not destroy the community of structure and function in the widest sense :<br />
it merely adds variety. Division of labour in an organism does not alter the fundamental nature of labour. Thus<br />
protoplasm and muscle are both endowed with centripetal and centrifugal movements, and plants and animals<br />
(without and with nerves) feel. Movement and feehng are fundamental endowments, and extend to both plants<br />
and animals ;<br />
and the fact that movement and feeling are more locahsed and emphasised in animals than in plants,<br />
and in the higher forms of both, does not abrogate the prerogatives common to all. It is on this common ground<br />
of structure and function that the lower and higher forms of plants and animals meet, for it cannot be maintained<br />
that the higher plants are better adapted for the work they are called upon to perform than the lower ones, or that<br />
animals are better equipped for the role they have to play than plants. Each hving plant and animal is to be<br />
regarded as perfect within its sphere ;<br />
cannot consistently be attributed to the Deity or Great First Cause.<br />
the Designer and the designed cannot be separated from each other, and error<br />
In order to keep this inorganic kingdom going, plants and animals are of necessity endowed with the power of<br />
moving in whole and in part.<br />
Desmids, and the young of many plants, move freely about in water for the most part by the aid of vibratile<br />
processes or cilia, and all plants circulate their nutritious juices. Some plants, moreover, such as the Sensitive<br />
and Insectivorous ones, move in parts and to given ends. They also feel. Animals one and all are endowed with<br />
the power of moving. This is true of the amoeba, and all intermediate animals, up to man. Movements are of