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BEGINNINGS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 135<br />
So long as the nervous system is intact these messages are possible. If, however, any part of the nervous<br />
system be broken down by injury or disease, the messages become unintelligible or altogether cease. The same thing<br />
happens when there is a break-down in the telegraphic system.<br />
It will be convenient to discuss this important subject somewhat more fully, especially in relation to the nerve<br />
elements themselves.<br />
That the ganglia of the spinal cord with their complement of sensory and motor nerves can act independently<br />
of the brain can scarcely be doubted. Such action, however, implies no irritability on the part of the ganglia and<br />
nerves of the cord, and no extraneous stimulation. It simply means that the cord with its ganglia and sensory<br />
and motor nerves may be regarded as an independent nerve centre to the more or less complete exclusion of the<br />
brain. The gangUa or nerve centres of the cord can receive sensory impressions on their own account. They can<br />
also convert sensory impulses into motor impulses. This they can do at first hand, and without extraneous interven-<br />
tion. The history of the ganglia or nerve centres, spinal cord, and brain, makes this abundantly clear. The ganglia<br />
or nerves centres can act without a spinal cord, and the spinal cord can act without a brain, when the latter is<br />
diseased or removed. The object of the nerve centres in every instance is, firstly, to co-ordinate and bring into<br />
line the several parts of the body by means of more or less perfect voluntary movements ; and secondly, to<br />
connect the animal with the outside world. This the nerve centres do by the aid of ganglia and sensory and motor<br />
nerves ; the former going to, the latter coming from them. No hypersensitiveness or excitabiUty of the nerve<br />
centres, and no extraneous stimulation of them is required for their normal action.<br />
In the jelly-fish, which is void of a brain, even the ganglia and sensory and motor nerves are rudimentary<br />
yet the animal is capable of feeUng and acting voluntarily. In the starfish, as has been shown (and the same is true<br />
of the aplysia), there is still no trace of a brain, but the ganglia or nerve centres and the sensory and motor nerves<br />
are more fuUy developed. The starfish and aplysia can certainly feel and move voluntarily and to given ends as<br />
apart from irritability and artificial stimulation. In the centipede the nervous system is arranged symmetrically<br />
in two longitudinal lines ; each segment of the animal being provided with two gangha and two sets of sensory<br />
and motor nerves : the two cephahc gangUa running together to form a rudimentary brain. The power of the<br />
centipede to feel and move voluntarily goes without saying. In the double linear chain of gangha forming the<br />
nervous system of the centipede can be traced the first beginnings of a spinal cord and brain. As a matter of<br />
fact, the brain, even in man, is to be regarded as an expansion and elaboration of a bilaterally symmetrical spinal<br />
cord. Virtually the same nerve elements enter into the composition of both. Both the brain and spinal cord<br />
are provided with ganglia or nerve centres and with nerve commissures and sensory and motor nerves in great<br />
profusion. They are also provided with an ample supply of conducting nerve fibres. The nerve commissures<br />
connect the gangUa longitudinally and transversely to secure united, harmonious action. The gangha or nerve<br />
centres, the spinal cord, and the brain are furnished with an abundant supply of rich blood, and the cord and brain<br />
are provided with fibrous and osseous coverings to protect them from injury.<br />
In the fishes and reptiles, the gangha which largely form the brain consist of a double chain or series, and<br />
these are arranged on the same plane and on a line with the spinal cord itself. It is only in the birds and mammals,<br />
especially the latter, that the cerebral lobes or hemispheres (cerebrum) of the brain sprout upwards umbrella-fashion,<br />
and cover in more or less completely from above the double chain of gangha which, as explained, are to be regarded<br />
as continuations of the ganglia of the spinal cord itself.<br />
These several points are illustrated at Plates Ivii. and Iviii.<br />
A subject of pecuhar interest in this connection is the nature of the gangha or nerve centres themselves,<br />
whether regarded as isolated, independent entities as they occur in animals, with no spinal cord and no brain ; or<br />
as they occur in animals, with a spinal cord and a rudimentary brain ; or as they are found in animals, with an<br />
elaborate spinal cord and with a wonderfully complex and highly differentiated brain. A microscopic examination<br />
some being round,<br />
of the gangha or nerve centres, and the cells composing them, shows them to be variously shaped ;<br />
some oval, some triangular, and some stellate. The star-shaped appearance is, for the most part, due to the entrance<br />
and exit of the sensory and motor nerves or conducting nerve substance of some kind ; the points at which the<br />
sensory nerves enter and the motor nerves leave the nerve centres being known as poles. The gangha, whether<br />
they belong to the cerebro-spinal or sympathetic system of nerves, consist of grey matter, the darker nerve<br />
substance. It occupies a central position in the spinal cord, and a peripheral one in the brain. This grey matter dis-<br />
charges very important functions, being accredited with the power of thinking in the brain, and of converting sensory<br />
into motor impulses in the spinal cord. The conducting nerves of the spinal cord and brain are composed of white<br />
nerve substance. The nerve gangha are, in many cases, highly elaborated and exceedingly complex (Fig 2, A, B of<br />
Plate Ivii. and also 1, 2, 3, 4 of Plate Iviii.). They consist, hke ordinary cells, of a cell wall or envelope, a nucleus,<br />
and a nucleolus—the contents of the nerve cell being molecular, granular, and protoplasmic in character. It is in