The 21st Century climate challenge

oceans, which cover 70 percent of theEarth’s surface.101 ACIA 2004; Perelet, Pegov and Yulkin2007.102 Hare 2005; Henderson 2007.103 Henderson 2006b.104 PEACE 2007.105 Gardner et al. 2003.106 Caldeira 2007.107 Caldeira 2007.108 Caldeira 2007.109 Carvajal 2007.110 McMichael et al. 2003.111 WHO and UNICEF 2005; WHO 2006.112 Tanser, Sharp and le Seur 2003.113 van Lieshout et al. 2004.114 Chretien et al. 2007.115 Stern 2006.116 PEACE 2007.117 WMO 2006.118 Epstein and Mills 2005.119 Epstein and Rogers 2004.120 New York Climate & Health Project 2004.121 New York Climate & Health Project 2004.Chapter 31 Government of the United Kingdom 2007a.2 Government of France 2006.3 Government of France 2006.4 Government of Germany 2007.5 G8 2007.6 Hanemann and Farrell 2006.7 These states include: Arizona, California,Connecticut, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois,Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, NewHampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico,New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermontand Washington (Pew Center on GlobalClimate Change 2007c).8 The Governors of Connecticut,Delaware, Maine, New Hampshire,New Jersey, New York, and Vermontestablished the RGGI in 2005.Maryland, Massachusetts and RhodeIsland joined in 2007 (Pew Center onGlobal Climate Change 2007c).9 Arroyo and Linguiti 2007.10 Claussen 2007.11 Brammer et al. 2006.12 Pew Center on Global Climate Change2007a.13 USCAP 2007.14 Arroyo and Linguiti 2007.15 Arroyo and Linguiti 2007.16 UNFCCC 2006.17 EIA 2006; Arroyo and Linguiti 2007.18 IPCC 2007c, Chapter 5: Transport and itsinfrastructure.19 Cairns and Newson 2006.20 Doniger, Herzog and Lashof 2006.21 Sullivan 2007.22 UNFCCC 2006.23 Government of Australia 2007.24 Henderson 2007.25 Government of New South Wales 2007.26 Acuiti Legal 2003.27 Pederson 2007; Nippon Keidanren 2005.28 Examples in this paragraph are taken fromPew Center on Global Climate Change2007b.29 Roosevelt 2006.30 On the case for carbon taxation and thecritique of cap-and-trade see Cooper2000, 2005; Nordhaus 2005; Shapiro2007.31 Hanson and Hendricks 2006.32 Nordhaus 2006.33 HDR calculation based on data fromIndicator Table 24; OECD emissions ofCO 2in 2004 were 13.3 Gt.34 Stern 2006.35 Shapiro 2007.36 Shapiro 2007; EPA 2006.37 IPCC 2007f. The global mitigationpotential relative to the IPCC’s SRES A1Bnon-mitigation scenario is estimated at17–26 Gt CO 2e/yr with a carbon price ofUS$1/t CO 2e, or 25–38 percent.38 Toder 2007.39 Sierra Club 2006.40 EEA 2004.41 International Network for SustainableEnergy 2006.42 Cairns and Newson 2006.43 During Phase II the scheme will cover 27countries.44 There are three fl exibility mechanismsintroduced by the Kyoto Protocol:Emissions Trading, the CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM) andJoint Implementation (JI). Unlike the CDMthat links mitigation efforts in developingand developed countries (Annex I andnon-Annex I parties), through the JointImplementation, Annex I parties may fundemission reducing projects in other AnnexI parties, typically countries in EasternEurope.45 UNFCCC 2007e.46 Point Carbon 2007.47 Carbon Trust 2006.48 Grubb and Neuhoff 2006.49 Carbon Trust 2006.50 Government of the United Kingdom2006b.51 Sijm, Neuhoff and Chen 2006.52 EU 2007c.53 Hoffmann 2006.54 Hoffmann 2006.55 WWF 2007a, 2007b.56 Reece et al. 2006; WWF 2006b, 2007a.57 WWF 2007a, 2007b.58 IEA 2006c.59 IEA 2006c.60 Government of the United States 2007a.61 IEA 2006c.62 NEA 2006.63 The Economist 2007b.64 Greenpeace and GWEC 2006.65 NCEP 2004a.66 Philibert 2006.67 Arroyo and Linguiti 2007.68 Greenpeace and GWEC 2006.69 NCEP 2004a.70 NCEP 2004a.71 Ürge-Vorsatz et al. 2007a; IEA 2006b.72 Ürge-Vorsatz, Mirasgedis and Koeppel2007b.73 Ürge-Vorsatz, Mirasgedis and Koeppel2007b; EC 2005a.74 IEA 2003.75 IEA 2003; World Bank 2007d.76 IEA 2003, page 128.77 IEA 2006b.78 Ürge-Vorsatz, Mirasgedis and Koeppel2007b.79 IEA 2003, 2006a.80 Ürge-Vorsatz, Mirasgedis and Koeppel2007b.81 EC 2006a.82 IPCC 2007c, Chapter 5: Transport and itsinfrastructure.83 Merrill Lynch and WRI 2005.84 Merrill Lynch and WRI 2005; NCEP2004a.85 Arroyo and Linguiti 2007.86 NCEP 2004a.87 EFTA 2007.88 CEC 2007c.89 CEC 2007c.90 EFTA 2007.91 Baumert, Herzog and Pershing 2005.92 Government of the United States 2007c.93 EC 2007a.94 Steenblik 2007.95 Runnalls 2007.96 Runge and Senauer 2007.97 Runge and Senauer 2007.98 EC 2007a.99 Summa 2007.100 The payment is currently set at €45 perhectare with a minimum guaranteed areaof 1.5 million hectares (CEC 2005b).101 IEA 2006c; IPCC 2007c, Chapter 5:Transport and its infrastructure.102 CEC 2006c; Jank et al. 2007.103 Elobeid and Tokgoz 2006.104 Tolgfors, Erlandsson and Carlgren 2007.105 Schnepf 2006.106 NASA 2005; Smithsonian National Air andSpace Museum 1999.107 Stern 2006.108 Thermal effi ciency describes the rate atwhich fuel is transformed into energy.109 Watson et al. 2007.110 IEA 2006b.111 Government of the United States 2007b.112 Government of the United States 2007b.113 Watson et al. 2007; Rubin 2007.114 Government of the United States 2005.115 Government of the United States 2006a.116 European Technology Platform on ZeroEmission Fossil Fuel Power Plants (ZEP)2007.117 EC 2005b.118 European Technology Platform on ZeroEmission Fossil Fuel Power Plants (ZEP)2007.HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2007/2008 201