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S. KULKARNI The main study includes eleven linguistic variables (seven phonological, one morpho-phonemic, two morphological and one composite lexical) which were identified in a pilot study. All the linguistic variables are binary (referred to here as ‘standard’ and ‘non-standard’. Previous researchers have tended to treat the linguistic divide as being between ‘Brahmin’ and ‘Non-Brahmin’ speech varieties). The interviews were transcribed phonemically and percentage standard scores were calculated separately for each linguistic variable. The quantified linguistic data were tested statistically for the effect of the social parameters listed under 1 and 2 under 3.3 above. The test Binary Logistic Regression in the statistical programme SAS was used (the testing procedure is briefly described under 4.1 below). A qualitative approach was used in analysing the effect of the children’s school networks on their speech habits. This approach helped to observe the ways in which children use speech to re-position themselves with respect to their corporate social identities (denoted by caste and class) in their school interactions. Statistical analyses of the eleven linguistic variables revealed that variation through the four caste groups is further superimposed upon social class variation, gender distinctions and differences in parents’ formal education generating patterns of sociolinguistic differentiation that are necessarily complex. In the following sections I shall present the analyses of three linguistic variables which yielded results that are relevant to the discussion of caste and class influence on linguistic standardisation in the Pune study. The three linguistic variables discussed here are: 1. (N) This variable refers to the alternation between the standard retroflex nasal /T/ and the non-standard /n/. /T/ and /n/ are phonemically distinct in the standard dialect. 2 The retroflex nasal has not only been discussed by previous scholars as a prominent marker of high caste/educated speech, but is also overtly recognised as such by the speakers of the language (i.e. by non-linguists). The pronunciation of the dental nasal corresponding to the retroflex in the standard has always been identified as a stereotype of non-Brahmin speech and is heavily stigmatised. Brahmins commonly refer to non-standard speakers as those who say /ani/, /pani/ and /loni/ instead of /aTi/, /paTi/ and /loTi/ (glosses: ‘and’, ‘water’ ‘butter’ respectively). Thus from a folk 2 For a discussion of the historical development of this sound in Marathi see Bloch 1970: 142-6. 102
SOCIOLINGUISTIC VARIATION AND CHANGE IN URBAN INDIA linguistic perspective, the T/n distinction in Marathi is probably the most significant. 2. (Aspiration_Medial_Final) or (Aspi_M_F) Aspirated stops in word-medial and –final positions in the standard tend to be unaspirated in non-standard speech. The phonological variable refers to the retention in the standard versus loss in the non-standard of aspiration of stops in word-medial and word-final positions. Examples Standard Non-standard Gloss dudh dud milk aUhKi aUKi eighth 3. (Lex) This is a composite variable consisting of some frequently occurring content and function words. Examples Standard Non-standard Gloss patelJ patilJ / bhJgulJ pot miValJ bheUlJ get (past) khup / phar lJi a lot / many 3.4. Hypotheses Drawing on the findings from the sociolinguistic surveys of semi-urban Phaltan Marathi and of working class Marathi in urban Bombay (Bernsten 1978 and Apte 1962 respectively), it was hypothesised that – 1. Caste membership will not have a significant effect on children’s linguistic choices 2. Social class effect on the choice of standard/non-standard variants will be greater than the caste effect. 103
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K ALJENAIE testing ground. To what
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K ALJENAIE causative form is basica
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K ALJENAIE person diagram, the two
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K ALJENAIE 3.2 Data Analysis The sa
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K ALJENAIE Table 4 Osama’s longit
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K ALJENAIE The asterisk indicates t
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K ALJENAIE which is the transitive
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K ALJENAIE confirming Hyams (1986)
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K ALJENAIE Table 12 Sara’s realiz
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K ALJENAIE Table 15 Number of Infle
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K ALJENAIE masculine forms are cons
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K ALJENAIE Motar, A. (1969). Khasai
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P. COUTSOUGERA Plural Plural Singul
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P. COUTSOUGERA e.g. [peδja'] *[pe
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P. COUTSOUGERA Tableau 1: Opacity i
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P. COUTSOUGERA As can be seen, in r
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P. COUTSOUGERA 6.1 Selection of the
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P. COUTSOUGERA /alevr-I-a/ Tableau
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P. COUTSOUGERA different areas of t
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P. COUTSOUGERA ruled out as it viol
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P. COUTSOUGERA operation McCarthy p
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P. COUTSOUGERA Tableau 6: Applicati
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P. COUTSOUGERA References Anderson,
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R. INGHAM cognitive deficits. They
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R. INGHAM 2. Subjects and hypothese
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Page 120 and 121: S. KULKARNI Marathi the kin term /m
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Page 124 and 125: S. KULKARNI Bapuji, B.R. (1994).
Page 126 and 127: S. KULKARNI Sastry, J.V. (1993). Re
Page 128 and 129: J. MARSHALL 2. Change versus Resist
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J. MARSHALL 4 Do you work/go to sch
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J. MARSHALL 8) I never eat brose or
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J. MARSHALL mentioned, a ‘real ti
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J. MARSHALL 3. LEXREC. This is an i
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J. MARSHALL which comes nearest to
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J. MARSHALL LIFMODLEXREC 60 50 40 L
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J. MARSHALL the different tests wer
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J. MARSHALL PHOVAR = 21.1 + 0.573 A
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J. MARSHALL There is no significant
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J. MARSHALL 7.6. SOCNET as a Predic
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J. MARSHALL SOCNET is again not sig
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J. MARSHALL integrated sociolinguis
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I. SINKA, M. GARMAN AND C. SCHELLET
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