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P. KERSWILL & A. WILLIAMS Table 2 The PRICE vowel with following voiceless and voiced consonants, Hull speakers (a) with following voiceless consonant, e.g. bright % [aF] ~ [aQ F ] % [aQ] WC elderly (n=4) 100 0 WC girls (n=8) 100 0 WC boys (n=8) 100 0 MC girls (n=8) 100 0 MC boys (n=8) 100 0 (b) with following voiced consonant, e.g. bride % [aF] ~ [aQ F ] % [aQ] WC elderly (n=4) 0 100 WC girls (n=8) 25.7 74.2 WC boys (n=8) 17.5 82.5 MC girls (n=8) 100 0 MC boys (n=8) 95.0 5.0 Note: Each adolescent read the following words: bright, knife, lighter, bike, whiter; bride, five, pint, smile, wider. Scores for the elderly are derived from the interview data; 20 tokens per speaker were transcribed. Finally, we consider the vowel of MOUTH, which is undergoing rapid change in Reading. Table 3 shows the distribution of its variants among working-class speakers there. This shows a near-complete shift away from the traditional variant across two generations: among the adolescents, the old forms are only used sporadically. The figures do not show a striking facet of Reading speakers’ behaviour with respect to this vowel: those 82
SALIENCE IN LANGUAGE CHANGE Table 3 Percentage use of variants of /a8/ (MOUTH), Reading Working Class, interview style [RGN] [RF] [RQ] [a QJ ] [æG] [aG] SED informants ✓ Elderly (2f, 2m) 53.5 38.1 3.3 0 4.1 0.7 Girls age 14 (n=8) 0 2.3 0 8.0 0 90.4 Boys age 14 (n=8) 3.8 3.2 0 5.7 0 87.1 speakers who use both old and new variants actually switch between these two, with no phonetically intermediate variant. To sum up: both Reading vowels are undergoing quite rapid change (dramatically so for MOUTH), while Hull PRICE remains relatively unlevelled, showing little convergence with southern or even majority northern variants. Let us now look more closely at these vowels in terms of the motivating factor of markedness/naturalness. There is no reason to suppose that any of the variants which are being lost (viz., Reading [RGN]/[RF] for MOUTH, [OF]/[PNF]/[PF]for PRICE) are less natural than the variants that are replacing them. On the other hand, the position for Hull PRICE is quite different. The allophonic distribution vowel was doubtless originally phonetically motivated, and hence natural, but that motivation has, presumably, long since been lost. Importantly, its continued existence in fact represents the maintenance of a complex, or more marked feature. This is a fact for which we must seek language-external explanations. Elsewhere (Williams & Kerswill 1999), we argue that this feature’s maintenance is due to the relative geographical and social isolation of the Hull working-class speakers, leading to close-knit networks. Returning to the salience notion, we find that none of the variants is reflected in orthography, nor is there a phonological contrast at stake anywhere. However, there are differences with regard to phonetic distance. Both the Hull PRICE vowel and the Reading MOUTH vowel involve relatively large differences, with little tendency for intermediate variants. These facts are certainly reflected in the switching in Reading between the variants of MOUTH; users of the traditional Reading variant are often aware of it, and younger users often have their attention drawn to it by non-users, who may 83
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K ALJENAIE testing ground. To what
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K ALJENAIE causative form is basica
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K ALJENAIE person diagram, the two
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K ALJENAIE 3.2 Data Analysis The sa
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K ALJENAIE Table 4 Osama’s longit
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K ALJENAIE The asterisk indicates t
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K ALJENAIE which is the transitive
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K ALJENAIE confirming Hyams (1986)
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K ALJENAIE Table 12 Sara’s realiz
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K ALJENAIE Table 15 Number of Infle
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K ALJENAIE masculine forms are cons
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K ALJENAIE Motar, A. (1969). Khasai
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P. COUTSOUGERA Plural Plural Singul
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P. COUTSOUGERA e.g. [peδja'] *[pe
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P. COUTSOUGERA Tableau 1: Opacity i
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Page 52 and 53: R. INGHAM cognitive deficits. They
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Page 120 and 121: S. KULKARNI Marathi the kin term /m
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Page 124 and 125: S. KULKARNI Bapuji, B.R. (1994).
Page 126 and 127: S. KULKARNI Sastry, J.V. (1993). Re
Page 128 and 129: J. MARSHALL 2. Change versus Resist
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J. MARSHALL To some extent, [networ
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J. MARSHALL these close-knit ties a
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J. MARSHALL Life mode 1. Life modes
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J. MARSHALL There are, however, som
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J. MARSHALL can choose a high level
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J. MARSHALL Pedersen therefore, lik
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J. MARSHALL case that these people
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J. MARSHALL 6. Research Question an
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J. MARSHALL ‘are high in frequenc
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J. MARSHALL 4 Do you work/go to sch
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J. MARSHALL 8) I never eat brose or
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J. MARSHALL mentioned, a ‘real ti
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J. MARSHALL 3. LEXREC. This is an i
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J. MARSHALL LIFMODLEXREC 60 50 40 L
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J. MARSHALL the different tests wer
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J. MARSHALL PHOVAR = 21.1 + 0.573 A
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J. MARSHALL There is no significant
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J. MARSHALL 7.6. SOCNET as a Predic
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J. MARSHALL integrated sociolinguis
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I. SINKA, M. GARMAN AND C. SCHELLET
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