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I. SINKA, M. GARMAN AND C. SCHELLETTER development, in the form of the category of main verbs. We concentrate on main verbs, as opposed to auxiliaries (Aux), because (1) Aux is a closed class intimately linked to the grammatical system; (2) Aux is not easy to compare across English, German and Latvian; (3) Aux is later in development than our early samples. The framework for our investigation is the lexical profiling approach developed in Garman (1995) which provides a format for displaying quantitative and qualitative aspects of the full vocabulary of expressive language samples. Among other measures, the lexical profile provides typetoken ratios (TTRs) for these form classes, as well as the more traditional TTR for the whole vocabulary. To control for effect on TTR of sample size (Richards 1987), this profile uses fixed (and rather small) size samples that are realistic within a clinical linguistic context - 250 continuous word tokens. This approach has revealed certain developmental patterns for English children, based partly on a re-analysis of the MRC Project data (Fletcher et al. 1986). Two of these expectations are: (1) contrary to earlier findings (Fletcher & Garman 1988), language normal children show significant TTR development between the ages of 3 to 7 years, for both whole-sample vocabulary (TTR) and main verb vocabulary (VTTR); (2) there is a tendency for VTTR to approximate whole-sample TTR, for each age group (and similar patterns have been found in adult data). The data from Sonja and Maija should give us an insight into how verb vocabulary develops in relation to grammatical development considerably before 3 years, and how English, German and Latvian compare in this respect. It should also provide specific information on how far early bilinguals show separate development of their two languages (De Houwer 1990). 2. Method 2.1 Data Tables 1a and 1b show the sampling distribution. Sessions were targeted on specific participants/languages, and relatively few non-target or mixed utterances were elicited. For Sonja, practical difficulties meant that sampling in English was less continuous through the observation period than for German. Each child had equivalent, and considerable, exposure to each language. 176
EARLY VERBS IN BILINGUAL ACQUISITION Table 1a. Sonja, English and German complete and intelligible utterances by sessions Age English sessions German sessions English German a Mixed b German English a Mixed b 1;11 75 9 3 2;0 226 13 18 2;1 177 5 16 2;2 113 13 17 191 7 14 2;3 150 8 6 207 7 12 2;4 264 10 2 2;5 274 0 5 2;6 229 7 7 180 0 3 2;7 247 4 20 196 0 2 2;8 110 0 4 Total 849 32 54 1790 51 75 Table 1b. Maija, English and Latvian complete and intelligible utterances by sessions Age English sessions Latvian sessions English Latvian a Mixed b Latvian English a Mixed b 1;3 132 11 1 123 6 0 1;4 131 53 4 128 2 0 1;5 96 40 5 199 13 3 1;6 167 81 3 314 16 8 1;7 150 19 5 201 4 2 1;8 180 39 0 202 2 0 1;9 153 52 7 207 5 2 1;10 221 17 7 252 2 1 1;11 251 3 3 205 0 4 Total 1481 315 35 1831 50 20 a non-target language utterances b utterances showing lexical or syntactic mixing Data were analysed in the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts programme (SALT: Miller & Chapman 1993). Table 2 shows types and tokens for all verb forms in SALT’s category of complete and intelligible utterances, across all samples. We report on this in detail elsewhere (Garman, Schelletter & Sinka 1999), and use it here just to give an overall impression of the distribution of verb forms in the 2 languages for each child. 177
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K ALJENAIE testing ground. To what
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K ALJENAIE causative form is basica
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K ALJENAIE person diagram, the two
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K ALJENAIE 3.2 Data Analysis The sa
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K ALJENAIE Table 4 Osama’s longit
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K ALJENAIE The asterisk indicates t
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K ALJENAIE which is the transitive
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K ALJENAIE confirming Hyams (1986)
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K ALJENAIE Table 12 Sara’s realiz
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K ALJENAIE Table 15 Number of Infle
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K ALJENAIE masculine forms are cons
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K ALJENAIE Motar, A. (1969). Khasai
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P. COUTSOUGERA Plural Plural Singul
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P. COUTSOUGERA e.g. [peδja'] *[pe
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P. COUTSOUGERA Tableau 1: Opacity i
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P. COUTSOUGERA As can be seen, in r
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P. COUTSOUGERA 6.1 Selection of the
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P. COUTSOUGERA /alevr-I-a/ Tableau
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P. COUTSOUGERA different areas of t
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P. COUTSOUGERA operation McCarthy p
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P. COUTSOUGERA Tableau 6: Applicati
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P. COUTSOUGERA References Anderson,
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R. INGHAM cognitive deficits. They
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R. INGHAM 2. Subjects and hypothese
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R. INGHAM good as their CA matches
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R. INGHAM using the Wilcoxon ranked
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R. INGHAM representations but also
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R. INGHAM Van der Lely, H., & L. St
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P. KERSWILL & A. WILLIAMS some vene
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P. KERSWILL & A. WILLIAMS far soone
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P. KERSWILL & A. WILLIAMS outside l
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P. KERSWILL & A. WILLIAMS Summary f
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P. KERSWILL & A. WILLIAMS Bardovi-H
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S. KULKARNI in the Indian caste hie
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S. KULKARNI century. The Sabha was,
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S. KULKARNI The main study includes
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S. KULKARNI 4. Quantitative Analyse
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S. KULKARNI comparatively lower (in
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S. KULKARNI Table 3: Percentage use
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S. KULKARNI showing an almost compl
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S. KULKARNI 50 mean % std. score 40
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S. KULKARNI 100 mean % std. score 9
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S. KULKARNI Marathi the kin term /m
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S. KULKARNI Bapuji, B.R. (1994).
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S. KULKARNI Sastry, J.V. (1993). Re
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J. MARSHALL 2. Change versus Resist
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