Reading Working Papers in Linguistics 4 (2000) - The University of ...

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P. KERSWILL & A. WILLIAMS Despite some problems, Trudgill’s version of salience is a testable hypothesis which can be measured against new data, and this is done in the research to be reported in the next section. To anticipate our conclusions: there is a strong need to view individual linguistic features more explicitly and carefully in terms of their social embedding and evaluation (to use Labov’s terms). This is because, even over a relatively short period of time, social embedding changes rapidly and in often unpredictable ways. Second, even within one community, embedding and evaluation may not be shared. Third, different linguistic features which are undergoing change vary in their social patterning in ways that may be related to their linguistic level (discourse, grammar or phonology), or sub-level (e.g., vowels or consonants). Differences related to linguistic level are not discussed by Trudgill; as Cheshire suggests, explanations for variation in grammatical, particularly syntactic, features may well be found in pragmatic and interactional factors. However, Trudgill believes factors 4 and 5, degree of phonetic difference and surface contrast (1986:37), to be the at the core of the salience notion, and we shall argue that these remain useful so long as they are seen as interacting with language-external factors. 5. The Dialect Levelling project 5.1 Premises and structure The study reported here 2 set out to investigate dialect levelling across urban centres in England. Its premises were the following: • In areas of high population movement, there may be rapid changes in dialect and accent features, including levelling. The speech community is diffuse • Membership of a close-knit, stable social network with strong local ties leads to linguistic conformity. This inhibits change, including that manifesting as levelling. The speech community is focused 2 Funded by the Economic and Social Research Council of Great Britain (ref. R000236180). See Cheshire 1999; Kerswill & Williams 1997, 1999, forthcoming; Williams & Kerswill 1999; Cheshire, Gillett, Kerswill & Williams 1999. 74
SALIENCE IN LANGUAGE CHANGE • The distance of a town from a metropolis (in this case London) is inversely proportional to the degree to which the town adopts linguistic features from that metropolis (the gravity model: see Trudgill 1983) • Language change is most visible through the comparison of teenage language with that of adults The project investigated teenage speech in three towns, Milton Keynes, a new town lying 70 kms north-west of London and having a highly mobile population (Kerswill & Williams 2000), Reading, a well-established town lying 60 kms west of London, and Hull, a northern city with declining industries. The choice of southern towns (Milton Keynes vs. Reading) enabled us to assess the effect of geographical mobility vs. stability and open vs. close-knit social networks on dialect levelling, while the choice of Hull allowed us to investigate the presence of convergence or divergence between North and South. In order to find evidence of parallel trends across social classes, in each town two broadly defined social groups were investigated, ‘working class’ and ‘middle class’, sampled by targeting schools in different catchment areas. In each town, 32 14-15 year olds were recorded in interviews and group discussions. Additionally, in each town, four elderly working-class residents were recorded. The following variables were quantified: • 4 vowels (those in the lexical sets of PRICE, GOOSE, GOAT and MOUTH 3 ) • 4 consonants (T-glottalling, fronting [?] -> [f], fronting [1 -> [v], H- dropping) • 12 non-standard grammatical (morphological and morphosyntactic) features • the focus marker like 5.2 Results We now look in detail at the geographical and social spread of a number of these variables. In order to investigate the role of salience, we will first try to assess the possible reasons for the difference in their spread in relation to one of the internal factors mentioned in section 3, that of markedness vs. 3 These words are used mnemonically, following Wells (1982). 75
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K ALJENAIE testing ground. To what
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K ALJENAIE causative form is basica
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K ALJENAIE person diagram, the two
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K ALJENAIE Table 4 Osama’s longit
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K ALJENAIE The asterisk indicates t
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K ALJENAIE which is the transitive
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K ALJENAIE confirming Hyams (1986)
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K ALJENAIE Table 12 Sara’s realiz
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K ALJENAIE Table 15 Number of Infle
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K ALJENAIE masculine forms are cons
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Page 52 and 53: R. INGHAM cognitive deficits. They
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Page 120 and 121: S. KULKARNI Marathi the kin term /m
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Page 124 and 125: S. KULKARNI Bapuji, B.R. (1994).
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J. MARSHALL 2. Change versus Resist
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J. MARSHALL anthropologists. As man
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J. MARSHALL Life mode 1. Life modes
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J. MARSHALL There are, however, som
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J. MARSHALL Pedersen therefore, lik
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J. MARSHALL case that these people
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J. MARSHALL 6. Research Question an
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J. MARSHALL 4 Do you work/go to sch
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J. MARSHALL LIFMODLEXREC 60 50 40 L
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J. MARSHALL the different tests wer
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J. MARSHALL PHOVAR = 21.1 + 0.573 A
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J. MARSHALL integrated sociolinguis
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