Science, Strategy and War The Strategic Theory of ... - Boekje Pienter

concepts, fundamental laws and theoretical assumptions, to such an extend even that mostof the “rules of the scientific game” have become internalized. In the words of Polanyi, theyhave become “tacit” or implicit, (a term Boyd would also use within context of the OODAloop), and exert a controlling influence on what is observed, which problems to focus on andhow reality is explained. They will articulate and develop the paradigm in their attempt toaccount for and accommodate the behavior of some relevant aspects of the real world asrevealed through the results of experimentation 55 .In studying seminal scientific developments - the works of Kepler, Copernicus, andGalileo in astronomy; of Lavoisier and Dalton in chemistry; of Newton in physics - Kuhnnoted the impact of these achievements resulted from the fact that they changed the basicworking assumptions of their respective fields. Astronomers working before Kepler,Copernicus and Galileo assumed that the sun and other planets moved about the earth andall research and argument among astronomers rested on that proposition. The change to asun centered system, with the earth in motion was in itself an esoteric change in the workingassumptions of the astronomers. The change provided a new basis for all subsequent theoryand research in the field. The remarkable feature of the episode is that an apparently esotericchange could have such a profound effect and far reaching consequences. Not only was anew basis laid for all subsequent theory and research in astronomy, but cascadingconsequences occurred far beyond the limits of astronomy.Another remarkable feature of such conceptual changes is the fact that their effectstranscend the scientific community or the discipline in which the shift occurred. Newtonianphysics and modern chemistry were logical descendents of the change in astronomer’sassumptions. But beyond that the religious and philosophical basis of society was forced toadjust, and the practical life of nearly every human being has been pervasively affected. Theintellectual shifts effected by Copernican and others somehow struck at the very core ofhuman organization 56 .Such changes of paradigms according to Kuhn, occur in discontinuous,revolutionary breaks called “paradigm shifts” and thus science progresses not via a neatgradual accumulation of knowledge 57 . In Kuhn’s view the transformation of a paradigmappears as a crisis 58 . Such a revolution is defined by the appearance of new conceptualschemes. This does not happen in an instant but is a social process. Before a paradigm shift,scientist practicing normal science within the reigning paradigm encounter anomalies.Initially, these are not considered to undermine the basic assumptions of the paradigm.However, over time the number of anomalies produced by research within a paradigmaccumulate and manifest a persistent character.The potential of a new paradigm brings to the fore aspects which previously werenot seen or perceived, or even suppressed in “normal” science. The basic assumptions of thereigning paradigm are actually questioned by the member of the scientific community. Theychallenge the legitimacy of their methods. Thus the community diversifies. Different pointsof view, cultural experiences and philosophical convictions are now expressed and often playa decisive role in discovery of a new paradigm.The emergence of the new paradigm further increases the vehemence of the debate.The rival paradigms are put to the test until the academic world determines the victor, whichbecomes the new “norm science”. Hence there is a shift in the problems noticed and55 Ibid, pp.108, 112.56 Steinbrunner, p.10.57 Capra (1997), p.5.58 Ilya Prigogine and Isabella Stengers, Order Out Of Chaos, Man’s New Dialogue With Nature (Flamingo,London, 1984), p.308.91