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Chapter 13 – Conclusions for Analyzing Clusters 193 towards an explanation that incorporates behavioral aspects. Our study demonstrates the importance of governance in (port) clusters. • The incorporation of analytical tools to analyze governance, most importantly, the theory of ‘collective action’, the concept ‘leader firms’ and the concept ‘regimes’. These three analytical tools enrich the analytical framework. • Recognition of the effects of the diversity of a cluster. The positive effects of diversity on economic growth and innovation performance of regions have been acknowledged, but this insight has not been incorporated in cluster research. Industry experts do agree with the positive effect of the diversity of a cluster on its performance, indicate that diversity of international scope is especially important, and rank diversity as a relatively important determinant of cluster performance. 13.3 The role of entry and exit barriers One important adaptation of the framework resulted from the case studies: the effects of exit barriers are not in line with the theoretical arguments presented in the theoretical part. The argument that exit barriers increase the embeddedness of firms in the cluster is dismissed. Embeddedness arises when the cluster environment offers advantages, not when barriers prevent exit. The empirical results show that exit barriers do not contribute to the performance of the cluster, as suggested in the theoretical part, but reduce the performance of the cluster. Two reasons explain this effect: first, exit barriers are also entry barriers. Since entry barriers reduce performance, exit barriers reduce performance as well. In this sense, the answers of the experts are coherent. Furthermore, exit barriers reduce dynamism in the cluster. When firms exit, entrants take their place. This dynamism has - according to the survey results - in general positive effects on the cluster. The experts rank exit barriers as by far the least important variable of the performance of clusters. Entry barriers are regarded as more important. In this respect, it is important to note that exit barriers are entry barriers, but the reverse is not true. For instance, the inaccessibility of networks is found to be a relevant entry barrier, but is not an exit barrier.
194 13.4 Internal competition in clusters The Performance of Seaport Clusters The results of the case studies confirm the importance of internal competition for cluster performance, as emphasized by Porter (1990) and Baptista (1999). In this study, the mechanisms that explain the positive effects of internal competition were studied. Three mechanisms were identified. All three mechanisms (monopoly rents, specialization and the vibrant environment) were found to be relevant in practice. This is an important conclusion, since the issue of internal competition is generally linked to the threat of monopoly power. The case study results show that internal competition has positive effects apart from preventing the abuse of market power. Since internal competitors have similar cost functions, they have strong incentives to specialize (to reduce competition). This also triggers innovation. Both effects are beneficial for the performance of a cluster. In this sense, it could be claimed that internal competition is most beneficial when it can lead to an ‘oligopoly’ with specialized service providers and less beneficial when it leads to cut-throat competition, on top of the competition with firms outside the cluster. 13.5 The role of leader firms in clusters The concept ‘leader firm’ was incorporated in the framework for analyzing the performance of clusters. The leader firm concept is relatively new and not well studied. Leader firms are defined as ‘firms with both the ability and the incentives to make investments with positive external effects for other firms in the cluster’. The case studies demonstrate that the leader firm concept contributes to the understanding of governance in clusters. The experts acknowledge the positive influence of leader firms on the performance of a cluster and they judge leader firms as important for the performance of the cluster. Evidence from the three cases shows the role leader firms can play. Furthermore, the analysis of collective action regimes shows the difficulties that arise when leader firms are absent. These results justify the conclusion that a special set of firms in clusters can have a substantial impact on its performance. These firms can be termed leader firms.
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PETER W. DE LANGEN The Performance
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The Performance of Seaport Clusters
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Preface v PREFACE My first publicat
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Preface vii The frequent question w
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x Emperical part: three cases of se
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1 INTRODUCTION Economists have alwa
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 3 1.2 Over
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 5 Second,
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2 CLUSTERS AS UNIT OF ANALYSIS In t
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Chapter 2 - Clusters as Unit of Ana
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20 The Performance of Seaport Clust
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22 Table 1: Four ways in which clus
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4 VARIABLES OF CLUSTER PERFORMANCE
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Chapter 4 - Variables of Cluster Pe
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5 CLUSTER STRUCTURE In this chapter
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 41 Th
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 43 ef
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 45 Th
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 47 fi
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 49 va
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 51 Ta
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54 6.1 Coordination in a cluster Th
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7 ANALYZING THE PERFORMANCE OF SEAP
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Chapter 7 - Analyzing the Performan
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8 CLUSTERING IN SEAPORTS In this ch
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Chapter 8 - Clustering in Seaports
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106 The Performance of Seaport Clus
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112 9.3.3 The presence of intermedi
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118 Figure 15: Optimal investment q
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10 STRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE IN SEA
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Chapter 10 - Structure and Performa
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11 GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE IN SE
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Chapter 11 - Governance and Perform
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Chapter 11 - Governance and Perform
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Appendix 2: Cluster Experts in the
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Appendix 2: Cluster Experts in the
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English Summary 249 The Performance
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English Summary 251 The third schoo
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English Summary 253 The empirical p
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English Summary 255 Internal compet
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English Summary 257 • The innovat
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262 Tabel S1: Het effect van de vie
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Curriculum Vitae 271 Curriculum vit
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The Performance of Seaport Clusters
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