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14 CONCLUSIONS ON SEAPORT CLUSTERS In this chapter, relevant conclusions with regard to seaport clusters are drawn. These conclusions are especially relevant for scholars with an interest in seaports. Six conclusions are discussed, and the chapter is finalized with suggestions for port research that builds on this research. 14.1 Seaport clusters The application of the cluster concept has resulted in more clarity on clustering in seaports: • First, it has become clear that seaports are clusters. In all the three cases, the cluster consists of substantial numbers of firms, all related to the arrival of ships and goods in seaports. The majority of value added and employment in the three clusters in not generated in primary port activities (cargo handling), but in related activities, such as logistics, manufacturing and trade. All these activities are concentrated in seaports. • Second, it is possible to identify a port cluster region. In all three cases, port activities are distributed over a number of municipalities and not limited to the port city. In fact, in the LMPC and Rotterdam, the port-cities have a lower concentration of port activities than smaller municipalities in the vicinity of the port. • Third, a ‘general’ list of cluster activities can be compiled. Such a list consists of all firms active in cargo handling, transport and logistics, and manufacturing and trading firms in a small number of ‘chains’ such as chemicals and grain. In the empirical part the list of cluster activities, each with the corresponding NAICS, are presented. This list of cluster activities is general and can be used to compare port clusters worldwide. 14.2 Internal competition in seaports The lack of internal competition is a weakness for seaports, even if external competition is fierce enough to prevent firms from monopoly pricing, because internal competition fosters specialization and creates an innovation-prone environment. Internal competition in cargo handling segments such as dry bulk, containers and fruits, and in most nautical port
202 The Performance of Seaport Clusters services, such as pilotage and towage is limited in the three cases. Since all three cases are large ports, internal competition is likely to be absent to an even larger extent in small and medium sized ports. The lack of internal competition can be explained to some extent by regulation (especially pilotage), but mainly because scale economies are so substantial that the minimum efficient size is so large that internal competition is unstable. Regulation, to tender and benchmark monopolies might be necessary in some cases to prevent monopoly pricing. However, regulation does not provide incentives for specialization and innovation. Thus, regulation is the least desirable policy direction. Policies to create internal competition are difficult and only desirable when firms can specialize. In these cases an arrangement that reconciles scale economies with the presence of internal competition is desirable. Such an arrangement is only possible when the port authority makes fixed investments and leases these assets to firms. In this case the port authority creates scale economies. An example could be pilotage equipment (ships as well as ICT infrastructure) that can be leased by independent pilotage firms as well as ship- owners. Such opportunities are discussed in the final chapter. 14.3 The organizational infrastructure in seaports The three port clusters are characterized by ‘institutional thickness’ 95 . The number of collective organizations (and to some extent public private partnerships) is large. Most of the collective organizations have a long history. Because of this institutional thickness, the infrastructure for coordination is relatively good. However, a consolidation of associations is widely regarded as a step forward, because current associations have limited resources to add value to their members. The results from the survey show that associations are not regarded as important intermediaries. Furthermore, the port experts indicate that the associations are not important as knowledge intermediaries. Finally, notwithstanding the presence of a substantial number of associations in the three cases, the organizational infrastructure is judged as moderate: in Rotterdam the average 95 In the sense of a variety of collective organizations and arrangements between governments and firms. This is a particular use of the term ‘institutional thickness’, others use the term institutions strictly for ‘rules’ and not for ‘organizations’.
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PETER W. DE LANGEN The Performance
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The Performance of Seaport Clusters
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Preface v PREFACE My first publicat
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Preface vii The frequent question w
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x Emperical part: three cases of se
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1 INTRODUCTION Economists have alwa
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 3 1.2 Over
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 5 Second,
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2 CLUSTERS AS UNIT OF ANALYSIS In t
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Chapter 2 - Clusters as Unit of Ana
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20 The Performance of Seaport Clust
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22 Table 1: Four ways in which clus
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4 VARIABLES OF CLUSTER PERFORMANCE
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Chapter 4 - Variables of Cluster Pe
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5 CLUSTER STRUCTURE In this chapter
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 41 Th
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 43 ef
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 45 Th
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 47 fi
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 49 va
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Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 51 Ta
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54 6.1 Coordination in a cluster Th
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7 ANALYZING THE PERFORMANCE OF SEAP
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Chapter 7 - Analyzing the Performan
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8 CLUSTERING IN SEAPORTS In this ch
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Chapter 8 - Clustering in Seaports
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106 The Performance of Seaport Clus
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112 9.3.3 The presence of intermedi
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118 Figure 15: Optimal investment q
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10 STRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE IN SEA
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Chapter 10 - Structure and Performa
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11 GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE IN SE
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Chapter 11 - Governance and Perform
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English Summary 251 The third schoo
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English Summary 253 The empirical p
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English Summary 255 Internal compet
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English Summary 257 • The innovat
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262 Tabel S1: Het effect van de vie
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Curriculum Vitae 271 Curriculum vit
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The Performance of Seaport Clusters
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