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Chapter 5 – Cluster Structure 45 The presence of internal competition in a cluster can be analyzed with the concentration ratio. An analysis of the MES, the regulatory regime and the level of switching costs provides insight in the effects of the absence of internal competition and opportunities to increase internal competition. 5.3 Cluster barriers With the term ‘cluster barriers’ we mean barriers to enter or exit the cluster, or to start a new venture in a cluster. Thus, cluster barriers differ from ‘industry barriers’. The barriers to shift from one industry to another are in general higher than the barriers to shift from one cluster to another (while staying in the industry). Cluster barriers are location specific barriers for firms that ‘intrinsically’ want to leave, or enter the cluster or start-up in the cluster, but face cluster specific barriers that complicate entry or exit 23 . The effects of entry, start-up and exit barriers on economic performance are widely acknowledged (see Geroski, 1995). Specifically for clusters, Staber (1996) argues that start- ups and bankruptcies reflect dynamism and that dynamism improves the performance of a cluster. Entry and start up barriers reduce competitive pressure for firms in the cluster and prevent the inflow of (human and financial) capital and knowledge. Therefore, both entry and start-up barriers reduce performance. 5.3.1 Entry barriers Entry barriers are defined here in a narrow sense, to separate them from start-up barriers. Entry barriers are barriers for firms outside a cluster that intend to establish activities in this cluster. Given this perspective, cultural entry barriers are relevant, because these influence the accessibility of local tacit knowledge and networks. When access to both resources is difficult, entry barriers are high, because ‘new’ firms need ‘local tacit knowledge’, for instance knowledge about public organizations, characteristics of local markets and the labor market. 23 Economic entry barriers such as economies of scale and ‘image’ (Geroski, 1995) are not taken into account, since these simply make entry unattractive from an economic point of view. Legal entry barriers are not taken into account because these are in general not cluster specific.
46 The Performance of Seaport Clusters Such tacit knowledge can be acquired by ‘learning by doing’, but this is costly. Alternatively, this tacit knowledge can be acquired through ‘learning by interaction’. This learning mechanism depends on the willingness of actors with local tacit knowledge to transfer this knowledge. This willingness differs between clusters. A low willingness to share local tacit knowledge can be regarded as a barrier to entry (see Silverberg, Dosi and Orsinigo, 1988). The access to networks depends on the legitimacy of entrants (Hannan and Carrol, 1992). Clusters with inaccessible networks have high entry barriers. Thus, clusters can range from ‘entry prone’ to ‘entry-adverse’. In entry prone clusters, cultural entry barriers are low (entrants have easy access to local tacit knowledge and networks). In entry adverse clusters, the cluster is ‘closed’ for outsiders and cultural entry barriers are substantial. 5.3.2 Start up barriers With regard to start-up barriers, two barriers are widely recognized: administrative barriers and the availability of venture capital 24 (Schenk, 1998). Administrative barriers are predominantly influenced by national legislation and therefore not taken into account. The availability of venture capital can differ between clusters, because of the presence of ‘local capital’ in clusters (Dei Ottate, 1994). Venture capital for start-ups (especially small ones) is to a large extent provided by ‘informal investors’ instead of banks or formal investment companies. The presence of such informal investors in a cluster lowers start-up barriers. 5.3.3 Exit barriers For exit barriers the issue is more complex than for entry and start-up barriers (see Clarke and Wrighly, 1997). When applied to clusters, the term exit barriers might be misleading, this term is associated with barriers to leave a certain industry. Cluster exit barriers are barriers to move (leave the cluster). The term footloose is used to indicate the level of barriers to move. Examples of footloose firms include many service firms, such as consultants. Other 24 The distinction between start-ups and ‘spin-offs’ is relevant in this respect. Spin-offs in general do not face the problems that start-ups face, because they benefit from the networks (and in some case financial support) of the firm that spins them off. The role of leader firms in creating dynamism by encouraging spin-offs is discussed in the next chapter.
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PETER W. DE LANGEN The Performance
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The Performance of Seaport Clusters
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Preface v PREFACE My first publicat
Page 8: Preface vii The frequent question w
Page 11 and 12: x Emperical part: three cases of se
Page 14 and 15: 1 INTRODUCTION Economists have alwa
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Page 22 and 23: 2 CLUSTERS AS UNIT OF ANALYSIS In t
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Page 38 and 39: 4 VARIABLES OF CLUSTER PERFORMANCE
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Page 52 and 53: 5 CLUSTER STRUCTURE In this chapter
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Page 56 and 57: Chapter 5 - Cluster Structure 43 ef
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Chapter 8 - Clustering in Seaports
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106 The Performance of Seaport Clus
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112 9.3.3 The presence of intermedi
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118 Figure 15: Optimal investment q
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10 STRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE IN SEA
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Chapter 10 - Structure and Performa
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11 GOVERNANCE AND PERFORMANCE IN SE
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Chapter 11 - Governance and Perform
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178 Table 74: Number of experts tha
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182 The evolution in market shares
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188 Table 85: Concentration pattern
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13 CONCLUSIONS FOR ANALYZING CLUSTE
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Chapter 13 - Conclusions for Analyz
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14 CONCLUSIONS ON SEAPORT CLUSTERS
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Chapter 14 - Conclusions on Seaport
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214 • Waste processing and recycl
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232 Industry experts The Performanc
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234 Agglomeration economies 10. Ind
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236 Cluster barriers Entry barriers
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238 Solving collective action probl
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240 The weight of the variables of
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Appendix 2: Cluster Experts in the
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Appendix 2: Cluster Experts in the
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English Summary 249 The Performance
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English Summary 251 The third schoo
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English Summary 253 The empirical p
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English Summary 255 Internal compet
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English Summary 257 • The innovat
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262 Tabel S1: Het effect van de vie
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Curriculum Vitae 271 Curriculum vit
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The Performance of Seaport Clusters
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