Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Knowledge ...

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José Manuel Cardenas and Mauro Spinola The goal is to describe a process <strong>of</strong> knowledge transfer and transformations by observing <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> IT in support <strong>of</strong> this transfer/transformation. To do this, we observed <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> non-routine work: <strong>the</strong> task/process <strong>of</strong> writing an academic paper. The concepts related to <strong>the</strong> assessment were: tacit knowledge and tacit information. Tacit knowledge is <strong>the</strong> owned capability or skill from each researcher to write an article individually and within a workgroup. In this sense, <strong>the</strong> knowledge transfer/transformation could be observed through two types <strong>of</strong> scenarios and through <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> IT tools related to KM in individual and group levels. The proposition <strong>of</strong> this research is that <strong>the</strong> formulation <strong>of</strong> a knowledge management system (KMS) demands a level <strong>of</strong> understanding from <strong>the</strong> tacit information in order to be contained within <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> designing such a system (system in <strong>the</strong> broad sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word). Results are divided in: a) radical paper and b) incremental paper, according to <strong>the</strong> grade <strong>of</strong> novelty and <strong>the</strong> collaboration embedded in its redaction. Both results are linked with <strong>the</strong> dimension <strong>of</strong> tacit knowledge used with <strong>the</strong> goal <strong>of</strong> producing an academic paper. Concluding that, it is necessary to understand how to produce experience repositories in order to reuse <strong>the</strong> created tacit knowledge for enhancing this activity. 2. Explicit knowledge and tacit information There is a kind <strong>of</strong> consensus about <strong>the</strong> fact that KM is focused on <strong>the</strong> ability to deal with two dimensions <strong>of</strong> knowledge: tacit and explicit (Nevo, Furneaux & Wand 2007; Nonaka 2007). From <strong>the</strong>se dimensions, tacit knowledge <strong>of</strong>fers more difficulty with evaluation once it belongs to a part <strong>of</strong> a very personal dimension and it is difficult to formalize (Wagner & Sternberg 1985).Explicit knowledge is that which can be easily transformed and articulated into words, symbols, images or any o<strong>the</strong>r explanation that can be easily understood by <strong>the</strong> message receiver. According to Nonaka (1994), this dimension <strong>of</strong> knowledge becomes tacit knowledge, that which is not easily expressed verbally. This knowledge is again converted explicitly through interactions among <strong>the</strong> knowledge repositories; <strong>the</strong>n, new tacit knowledge is produced by those interactions. And, this generates a cycle that shapes a spiral <strong>of</strong> knowledge. This process <strong>of</strong> knowledge transfer seems relatively simple because people have <strong>the</strong> ability to decode information from prior knowledge (Izquierdo, Bevilaqua & Cammarota 2006) through a process <strong>of</strong> experience and use, learning by trial and error, or testing and failure. However, when <strong>the</strong> objective is trying to transfer information from one person to a storage medium, or technology designed for this purpose, it could be said that <strong>the</strong> next cycle will not be created because <strong>the</strong> "storage medium" does not have <strong>the</strong> skills to generate tacit knowledge from <strong>the</strong> information received. But, it could be said also that <strong>the</strong>re was an effective transfer <strong>of</strong> information, since <strong>the</strong> message was passed without changes and may be assumed that information will be passed out to o<strong>the</strong>r users without modification. This way, if considered <strong>the</strong> premise that using a particular IT strives to properly transfer information, like specific KM, two strategies can be considered. (Hansen, Nohria & Tierney 1999) formulate <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> using: a) personalization and b) codification as strategies for use <strong>of</strong> IT tools. The former implies that <strong>the</strong> organization seeks to primarily use <strong>the</strong> tacit knowledge <strong>of</strong> those involved and <strong>the</strong> dissemination <strong>of</strong> this knowledge in order to develop an organizational learning that involves sharing <strong>the</strong> experiences <strong>of</strong> each element <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> organization from <strong>the</strong> problems or successes that happen on a day-to-day basis. Personalization means to streng<strong>the</strong>n existing links within <strong>the</strong> organization in order to let <strong>the</strong> social networks be more dynamic and enhance <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> dissemination and sharing <strong>of</strong> experiences from each member as <strong>of</strong>ten as possible. Strategy <strong>of</strong> codification involves <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> encryption technologies for storing information, creating repositories and allowing access to stored data continuously in order to enhance <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> learning from <strong>the</strong> people who need to use knowledge as a resource for personal development within <strong>the</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> organization. And, within <strong>the</strong> encoding process; activities, tasks and processes should be as documented as possible, in order to be reviewed in <strong>the</strong> future and modify, eliminate or improve <strong>the</strong> information. The process <strong>of</strong> choosing <strong>the</strong> most appropriate alternative depends on <strong>the</strong> organization's ability to identify <strong>the</strong>ir needs for creating, processing and using <strong>the</strong>ir explicit knowledge or <strong>the</strong>ir tacit information.That is, if it is needed to manage explicit knowledge through IT, <strong>the</strong> organization should think in terms <strong>of</strong> knowledge that this "explicitly" expressed in <strong>the</strong> way that it is able to be contained into physical mechanisms, stored in databases and accessible through information systems that allow <strong>the</strong> recovery <strong>of</strong> such data when necessary. Thus, <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> IT within <strong>the</strong> spiral <strong>of</strong> knowledge focuses on <strong>the</strong> transfer <strong>of</strong> a coded message for this purpose. However, consider also <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> "tacit information," which is also produced as part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> transforming knowledge. According to Falconer (2006), <strong>the</strong> information remains tacit for different reasons. One reason is because it is part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> organizational culture that does not share all known 176
José Manuel Cardenas and Mauro Spinola information. It is not possible to explicit or express all information, and also by <strong>the</strong> many limitations that IT has to store tacit information. Additionally, consider that <strong>the</strong> formulation <strong>of</strong> explicit knowledge appears, by <strong>the</strong> prior existence <strong>of</strong> additional information, to be sometimes tacit, or meta-knowledge. That is, knowledge about <strong>the</strong> knowledge that is being created (Nevo 2003). Finally, <strong>the</strong> information that has been expressed in this paper, or by means <strong>of</strong> ideas, creates "tacit information," in parallel. And, one part <strong>of</strong> this tacit information is explicit knowledge, in terms <strong>of</strong> KM; but, this cannot be stated to be included within <strong>the</strong> IT tools, per se. At <strong>the</strong> same time, it is difficult to formulate a KMS that involves a connection <strong>of</strong> people and IT, in an appropriate way. 3. Tacit knowledge From <strong>the</strong> definition <strong>of</strong> Polanyi (1966) about tacit knowledge: "'We can know more than we can tell," <strong>the</strong> tacit knowledge has been seen from o<strong>the</strong>r opticals and brought inside <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> KM. In <strong>the</strong> view <strong>of</strong> Collins (2001), tacit knowledge is made up <strong>of</strong> scientific information that has not been transferred, but only via meetings and also formulas or ma<strong>the</strong>matical models. It also appears in <strong>the</strong> form <strong>of</strong> knowledge, used to cope with specific situations (or Practical Intelligence) (Wagner & Sternberg 1985; Mat<strong>the</strong>w & Sternberg 2009). This allows <strong>the</strong>re to be an open discussion about what is and what is not tacit knowledge, besides <strong>the</strong> characteristics that may be appropriate or not to this type <strong>of</strong> knowledge (Castillo 2002; Tsoukas 2003). That means that organizations are faced with a difficult dare to manage this dimension <strong>of</strong> knowledge in its inner (Taylor 2007). Castillo (2002) suggests that tacit knowledge can be individual or collective, and proposes <strong>the</strong> following typology: a) Nonepistle tacit knowledge: This type <strong>of</strong> knowledge is that which people cannot put on paper, referring to <strong>the</strong> kind <strong>of</strong> letter that cannot be written because <strong>the</strong> individual cannot express in words <strong>the</strong> characteristics that are intrinsic to him/her. b) Sociocultural tacit knowledge: Part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> collective tacit knowledge that <strong>the</strong> individual shares with <strong>the</strong> organization to which he/she belongs. As a neuron that just cannot express a concept, but needs to link itself up with o<strong>the</strong>r neurons to reflect a notion. c) Semantic tacit knowledge: The kind <strong>of</strong> tacit knowledge that can be conveyed through gestures due <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> times that a process has been repeated; or <strong>the</strong> familiarity <strong>of</strong> individuals with specific practice. d) Sagacious tacit knowledge: The tacit knowledge that individuals acquire because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> skills that he/she has developed on a personal level. More generally, tacit knowledge - ei<strong>the</strong>r individually or collectively - demands for elicitation methods in order to be found, which are in <strong>the</strong> form <strong>of</strong> psychological models (mental models) and assessments <strong>of</strong> individual and group behavior. But, <strong>the</strong>se methods are not part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> this article. 4. Knowledge Management Systems As mentioned, <strong>the</strong>re is a consensus on <strong>the</strong> fact that KM seeks to address <strong>the</strong> two basic types <strong>of</strong> knowledge: tacit and explicit (Nevo, Furneaux & Wand 2007). Thus, research relating to <strong>the</strong> topic <strong>of</strong> KM focus on <strong>the</strong> interest in <strong>the</strong> question <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two dimensions <strong>of</strong> knowledge and how <strong>the</strong>y affect organizational aspects. The goal <strong>of</strong> KM, in this sense, is to manage <strong>the</strong>se two types <strong>of</strong> knowledge that seek gains in efficiency and effectiveness <strong>of</strong> routine and non-routine processes. Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) are considered as information systems used specifically to assist in <strong>the</strong> processes <strong>of</strong> KM within organizations (Alavi & Leidner 2001). However, <strong>the</strong> word “system” refers to a junction <strong>of</strong> elements that aim to achieve a goal or develop a specific process/task and later create a continuum from <strong>the</strong> system. Then, a KMS must possess <strong>the</strong> ability to aid and manage <strong>the</strong> production activities and knowledge sharing, i.e., joint users with <strong>the</strong> appropriate technology to generate and use knowledge. It is possible to note two basic functionalities <strong>of</strong> a KMS: a) store and disseminate explicit knowledge, and b) serve as a platform in order to share/transfer tacit knowledge. But, <strong>the</strong> research on tacit knowledge, as previously seen, has presented different points <strong>of</strong> view and has increased difficultly in <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> IT for support processes and storage <strong>of</strong> this knowledge. For this reason, this study was conducted as an experience to observe what <strong>the</strong> limitations <strong>of</strong> IT are, and how to deal with tacit knowledge. In <strong>the</strong> review by Alavi & Leidner (2001), IT has three applications within <strong>the</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> KM: a) coding and sharing <strong>of</strong> best practices, b) creating corporative directories <strong>of</strong> knowledge and c) creating knowledge networks. These authors also build a framework linking social processes with <strong>the</strong> processes <strong>of</strong> knowledge through: a) creation, b) storage/retrieval, c) transfer and d) application. The latter more closely relates to <strong>the</strong> application <strong>of</strong> 177
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Proceedings <stron
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Contents Title Author(s) Picture <s
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Title Author(s) Picture of<
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Volume Two The Influence of
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The Symbolic Innovation of<
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Biographies of <st
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Jan Pawlowski works as Prof
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in academia. He holds the</
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Biomedical Engineering Research Cen
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Mathematics and Ph
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Thi Hai Hang Nguyen is a lecturer a
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Dan Savescu graduate TCM Faculty, p
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Teaches Business Computing and Stat
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Abdallah Al-Shawabkeh, Alexander K<
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Table 1: Inn-KM approach contents 2
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Knowledge Dynamics and Organisation
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Eckhard Ammann We distinguish three
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Eckhard Ammann quality dimension ar
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Eckhard Ammann The second cycle, Cy
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Figure 7: Supervised learning-by-do
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Identifying and Ranking the
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Manouchehr Ansari et al users <stro
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2.5 leadership and strategy Manouch
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Manouchehr Ansari et al conducted s
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Attitude of Senior
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Contextual Adaptive Visualization E
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A Framework for the</strong
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Leila Beig et al Additionally, Wei
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Experiential Knowledge Creation Pro
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4. Results and discussion Pavel Bog
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Pavel Bogolyubov Knowledge Manageme
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Pavel Bogolyubov McNamee, R. C., N.
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Ettore Bolisani, Francesca Gambarot
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Table 2: Synthesis
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Strategies for Increasing Knowledge
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4.1.2 The researchers Françoise de
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The Application of
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Nasser Easa and Robin Fincham 3. Th
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Nasser Easa and Robin Fincham knowl
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Network Management as a way to Mana
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Initiation Configuration Interessem
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The Essence of Kno
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Tiit Elenurm development visions. C
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2.3 Knowledge mapping Mohamad Ali F
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Knowledge Workers: A Typology Frame
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Jiří Franek and Eva Grublova crea
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Jiří Franek and Eva Grublova Know
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Adoption of Knowle
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References Manel González-Piñero
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creating new, added, essential qual
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Instance Schema Figure 4: Cyclic tr
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Receive suggestions Compare suggest
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Appendix David Grosse Kathoefer and
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Why does knowledge transfer process
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Developing a Knowledge Strategy Usi
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Simone Manfredi, Domenico Celenza a
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Modelling Knowledge Sharing Into a
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2 masseurs ; Virginia Maracine et a
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2.1.1 SNA - the co
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Virginia Maracine et al mapping <st
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Virginia Maracine et al Which are
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Objective 1 - Mapping of</s
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From Knowledge Acquisition to Knowl
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Peter Marshall and Damian Gordon el
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Peter Marshall and Damian Gordon kn
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2.3.4 Types of Kno
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Peter Marshall and Damian Gordon Ma
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