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Nasser Easa and Robin Fincham knowledge. It follows <strong>the</strong>n that <strong>the</strong> Japanese context well favours <strong>the</strong> explicating <strong>of</strong> knowledge which is embedded. Weir and Hutchings (2005) claimed that in <strong>the</strong> Arab culture externalisation works not exactly <strong>the</strong> way it is supposed to according to <strong>the</strong> SECI model, however <strong>the</strong>y reported that Chinese organisations externalise knowledge almost by <strong>the</strong> same way as Japanese companies do. They opined that it is not clear that <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> externalisation as used in <strong>the</strong> SECI framework works as well in <strong>the</strong> Arab context as many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> networks already exist in virtual form. The process <strong>of</strong> externalisation is a continuous one in which <strong>the</strong> knowledge base does not move inexorably from covert to overt status, but can shift as <strong>the</strong> definitions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> social situations change according to events. As a result, some knowledge can indeed remain tacit but available, while o<strong>the</strong>r knowledge can surface as explicit and <strong>the</strong>n revert as situations develop. They claimed also that Arab culture is high in tolerance <strong>of</strong> ambiguity and Arabs tend to prefer to keep <strong>the</strong>ir own knowledge until <strong>the</strong>re is an absolute need for disclosure. But within relations <strong>of</strong> trust, all knowledge may be available to partners and colleagues. This means that <strong>the</strong>se situations are governed by <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relationships, ra<strong>the</strong>r than by legal rules or judgments <strong>of</strong> business importance. Therefore, In Arab business people may prefer not to surface tacit knowledge, but in case that happens it is usually <strong>of</strong> significance. China, however, demonstrates some similarities with Nonaka’s characterisation <strong>of</strong> Japanese organisations in <strong>the</strong>ir approach to knowledge management and <strong>the</strong> sharing <strong>of</strong> knowledge. In a similar fashion as in Japan, <strong>the</strong> willingness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Chinese to share knowledge is also underpinned by its group orientation and <strong>the</strong> Chinese also devote considerable time to <strong>the</strong> diffuse processes <strong>of</strong> explicating tacit knowledge. Knowledge also in Japan and China is created in “communities <strong>of</strong> practice” and exists in tacit forms and cannot be formalised without loss <strong>of</strong> au<strong>the</strong>nticity. Andreeva and Ikhilchik (2010) mentioned that <strong>the</strong> Russian culture is similar to Japan’s culture in terms <strong>of</strong> usage <strong>of</strong> metaphors, analogies and models in explanations as mechanisms <strong>of</strong> externalisation. However, <strong>the</strong>y are different in terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> group orientation, as Russia is more individualistic than Japan. Russians tend to be collectivistic <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> small groups, while as soon as <strong>the</strong>y exit <strong>the</strong>ir “inner circle”, <strong>the</strong>y can demonstrate more individualistic behaviour (H<strong>of</strong>stede and H<strong>of</strong>stede, 2005). Concerning H<strong>of</strong>stede’s two key dimensions mentioned above, Haag et al. (2010) opined that <strong>the</strong>re are not substantial differences in knowledge conversion from <strong>the</strong> perspective <strong>of</strong> individualismcollectivism and power distance. 3.3 Combination At this stage <strong>of</strong> SECI process, <strong>the</strong> tacit knowledge that has been explicated in <strong>the</strong> previous mode <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> model is now <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> sorting, combination and categorization (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). The whole process <strong>of</strong> continuously and holistically combining knowledge from all employees throughout <strong>the</strong> organization has powerful roots in distinctive Japanese management practices. Combination is supported by some typically Japanese practices, such as <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> interdepartmental rivalry, consultative decision-making, purposeful overlap <strong>of</strong> functional responsibilities and <strong>the</strong> more secure context for free and open access to organisational information due to high personal commitment and relatively permanent occupation (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995; Glisby and Holden 2003). In comparison to western values, Glisby and Holden (2003) argued that <strong>the</strong> general absence <strong>of</strong> inter-departmental rivalry and consequences <strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> face in Japan make combination more straightforward than in Western organisations. Weir and Hutchings (2005) concur with Glisby and Holden (2003) that combining knowledge from all employees throughout <strong>the</strong> organisation has powerful roots in distinctive Japanese management practices and this may not apply universally. They argued that both Arabic and Chinese worlds are characterised by much more concentrated authority and decision-making in comparison to Japan. Combination may play a ra<strong>the</strong>r different role in Arab business organisations for <strong>the</strong> evident reason that <strong>the</strong> business organization as such is usually structured in terms <strong>of</strong> unfamiliar structures and <strong>the</strong> discourse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> family and its internal and external relations is readily applied. Thus it is accepted that power and authority are concentrated and that, none<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> testimony <strong>of</strong> junior members is likely to contain valuable elements. So <strong>the</strong> good leader has to be both authoritative and consultative. This concludes that <strong>the</strong> Arab world is authoritarian but also consultative, so knowledge translated is more complex than that described by Nonaka and Takeuchi. In China, in contrast to Japan’s participative style <strong>of</strong> management, employees are certainly keen to save face and avoid conflict. There, <strong>the</strong> authority and seniority are highly respected and managers do not feel comfortable in receiving advice or information from people below <strong>the</strong>m in <strong>the</strong> hierarchy. So, employees are reluctant 236
Nasser Easa and Robin Fincham to share information with managers as that would cause loss <strong>of</strong> face to mangers. This situation supports <strong>the</strong> top-down decision making and works against sharing <strong>of</strong> knowledge. For Russia, Andreeva and Ikhilchik (2010) concluded that <strong>the</strong> combination process is applicable in Russian context. However, this conclusion was also debatable. As mentioned above, Nonaka, Takeuchi, (1995) consider consultative decision-making as a part <strong>of</strong> leadership style that is inherent to <strong>the</strong> combination process. However, Andreeva and Ikhilchik suggested that such type <strong>of</strong> leadership is not widely practiced by Russian managers due to <strong>the</strong> historical heritage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> leaders’ attitudes to <strong>the</strong> followers. They also mentioned that <strong>the</strong>re is lack <strong>of</strong> free access <strong>of</strong> employees to corporate information in Russian companies. This is because Russian companies are known for <strong>the</strong>ir obsession with secrecy <strong>of</strong> any kind <strong>of</strong> information related to <strong>the</strong>ir business and reluctance to share it both internally and externally. They commented also that Russian companies provide controversial Application <strong>of</strong> purposeful overlap <strong>of</strong> functional responsibilities “redundancy”. Many Russian companies have such an overlap but this typically has not been established intentionally, ra<strong>the</strong>r it developed with <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> company due to <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> attention <strong>of</strong> managers to organisational structuring. Accordingly <strong>the</strong> unintentional nature <strong>of</strong> such redundancy toge<strong>the</strong>r with a highly competitive environment inside <strong>the</strong> company usually leads to many conflicts both on individual and interdepartmental level. They suggested that polychromic time orientation is <strong>the</strong> only combination supporter that existed in both Japan and <strong>the</strong> Russian culture. In general, Haag et al. (2010) criticised <strong>the</strong> views <strong>of</strong> Glisby and Holden (2003) and Weir and Hutchings (2005) that <strong>the</strong> combination mode has powerful roots in a distinctive Japanese culture. They argued that combination mode focuses on explicit knowledge only and Japanese companies focus more on tacit knowledge, whereas organisations in Western cultures focus on explicit knowledge. 3.4 Internalisation The last stage <strong>of</strong> SECI, internalisation, assumes that employees broaden, extend and reframe <strong>the</strong>ir own tacit knowledge as <strong>the</strong>y internalize <strong>the</strong> explicit knowledge that is shared throughout <strong>the</strong> organization (Nonaka, 1991). Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) stress <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> learning-by doing and <strong>the</strong> access <strong>of</strong> following up <strong>the</strong> training programmes documents and databases to support <strong>the</strong> internalisation process. Glisby and Holden (2003) suggest that <strong>the</strong>re are typical Japanese practices that create a context for efficient internalisation such as <strong>the</strong> focus on developing generalists ra<strong>the</strong>r than specialists in one narrow domain, and wide acceptance <strong>of</strong> learning-by-doing. Weir and Hutchings (2005) agree with Glisby and Holden (2003) that <strong>the</strong> depiction <strong>of</strong> internalisation proposed in <strong>the</strong> SECI model does not have universal application. They reported that internalisation in <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> Arab management is not widely spread and is limited to informal ways. The separation <strong>of</strong> life-spheres is less distinct, so behaviours which work in one context can become models for o<strong>the</strong>r more formal situations. Moreover, <strong>the</strong> Arab context is typically not aimed to change <strong>the</strong> employee’s competences significantly, so <strong>the</strong> focus is still on specialists. Weir and Hutchings (2005) added that people in China were conditioned no to admit mistakes during <strong>the</strong> communist years and this strong fear considerably inhibits <strong>the</strong> learning-by-doing process within organisations. The fear <strong>of</strong> mistakes is also one aspect <strong>of</strong> Russian employees and this makes <strong>of</strong> responsibilities does not work well in many Russian companies (Andreeva and Ikhilchik, 2010). However, Andreeva and Ikhilchik <strong>the</strong>mselves suggested that <strong>the</strong>re is a very similar situation between Japan and Russia with generalistic job descriptions – while many Russian organisations use <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong>y are usually perceived by employees as a result <strong>of</strong> mismanagement and potential source <strong>of</strong> conflicts. This argument is also controversial to <strong>the</strong>ir above conclusion that SECI is applied in <strong>the</strong> Russian context and suggests that externalisation does not work effectively in Russia relative to Japan. 4. Conclusion Glisby and Holden (2003) noted that each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> four modes <strong>of</strong> SECI is strongly interpreted in reference to <strong>the</strong>ir embeddedness in traditional Japanese values and management practices and <strong>the</strong>y concluded that <strong>the</strong> applicability <strong>of</strong> this model is not universal. Weir and Hutchings (2005) concurred with Glisby and Holden’s notes that SECI does not have universal application. However, Weir and Hutchings controversially suggested that elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SECI model do have application in <strong>the</strong> Arab world and China. They explained that people in <strong>the</strong> Arab world are naturally more socialised and accordingly hold tacit knowledge and to this extent <strong>the</strong>y evidence <strong>the</strong> socialisation aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nonaka and Takeuchi model. However, those people differ from <strong>the</strong> externalisation element in that 237
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Proceedings <stron
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Contents Title Author(s) Picture <s
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Title Author(s) Picture of<
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Volume Two The Influence of
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The Symbolic Innovation of<
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Biographies of <st
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Jan Pawlowski works as Prof
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in academia. He holds the</
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Biomedical Engineering Research Cen
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Mathematics and Ph
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Thi Hai Hang Nguyen is a lecturer a
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Dan Savescu graduate TCM Faculty, p
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Teaches Business Computing and Stat
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Abdallah Al-Shawabkeh, Alexander K<
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Table 1: Inn-KM approach contents 2
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Knowledge Dynamics and Organisation
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Eckhard Ammann We distinguish three
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Eckhard Ammann quality dimension ar
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Eckhard Ammann The second cycle, Cy
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Figure 7: Supervised learning-by-do
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Identifying and Ranking the
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Manouchehr Ansari et al users <stro
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2.5 leadership and strategy Manouch
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Manouchehr Ansari et al conducted s
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Attitude of Senior
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Contextual Adaptive Visualization E
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2.4 Rights transfer Simona-Clara B
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A Framework for the</strong
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Leila Beig et al Additionally, Wei
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Leila Beig et al source context Ele
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Leila Beig et al Figure 1: Learning
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Leila Beig et al Figure 3 visually
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Leila Beig et al based on collectiv
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Experiential Knowledge Creation Pro
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Pavel Bogolyubov Figure 1: number <
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4. Results and discussion Pavel Bog
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Pavel Bogolyubov Knowledge Manageme
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Pavel Bogolyubov McNamee, R. C., N.
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Ettore Bolisani, Francesca Gambarot
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Table 2: Synthesis
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Ettore Bolisani, Marco Paiola and E
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Strategies for Increasing Knowledge
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Constantin Bratianu, Adriana Agapie
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Camelia Burja and Vasile Burja Appr
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∀ , i ≥ 0 v u i where: ui repre
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Adriana Schiopoiu Burlea With respe
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Adriana Schiopoiu Burlea 3. ESF rol
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Adriana Schiopoiu Burlea In <strong
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3.2 Discussions Adriana Schiopoiu B
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Adriana Schiopoiu Burlea Nonaka, I.
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Simon Cadez and Vlado Dimovski with
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Simon Cadez and Vlado Dimovski scho
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Simon Cadez and Vlado Dimovski It i
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Why Should I Share my new ideas? Cu
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Francesco Calza, Rossella Canestrin
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Isaac Enakimio and Abdallah Al-Shaw
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Isaac Enakimio and Abdallah Al-Shaw
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A proposed Framework for Discoverin
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2.3 Knowledge mapping Mohamad Ali F
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Mohamad Ali Feyz, Babak Akhgar and
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Knowledge Workers: A Typology Frame
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Jiří Franek and Eva Grublova crea
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Jiří Franek and Eva Grublova Know
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Middle Managers’ Maturity <strong
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Zoltán Gaál et al investigated m
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Zoltán Gaál et al Table 2: Total
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Zoltán Gaál et al characterised b
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Charles Gagné et al This paper pre
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Charles Gagné et al attributable t
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Charles Gagné et al intermediary d
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Adoption of Knowle
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1.1.2 SMEs and KMS Tendayi Gondo an
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Tendayi Gondo and Edmore Kori ambit
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The Chain Value Process and Knowled
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Manel González-Piñero et al Captu
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4. What a biofeedb
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Manel González-Piñero et al The p
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References Manel González-Piñero
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Nebojsa Graca and Ana Lucija Gojako
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creating new, added, essential qual
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Instance Schema Figure 4: Cyclic tr
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Receive suggestions Compare suggest
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The Not-Invented-Here Syndrome in A
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Opinion of colleag
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Appendix David Grosse Kathoefer and
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Individual Level Influencers on Tac
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Claire Gubbins et al “my thing wi
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Oscar Guerra and Janeth Rojas Accor
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Why does knowledge transfer process
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Understanding Personal Knowledge De
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Intellectual Capital in Universitie
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Developing a Knowledge Strategy Usi
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Understanding the
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3.1 Acquire Ciara Heavin and Freder
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4.2.1 Discussion - Case 2 Tore Hoel
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Using Web 2.0 Technologies to Suppo
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Thomas Janke room for communication
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Thomas Janke The rule states that w
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Thomas Janke Softw
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Expert Knowledge: Does it Help or H
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Selvi Kannan are people who have ex
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Integration of Kno
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Peter Marshall and Damian Gordon Ma
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Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Knowledge ...

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