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Nasser Easa and Robin Fincham 3. The applicability <strong>of</strong> SECI model in cross-cultural contexts SECI model has become widely accepted by scholars and widely quoted in approaches to classifying, creating, documenting, sharing and transferring knowledge (Haggie and Kingston, 2003; Aurum et al., 2008). However, little research has been done to test <strong>the</strong> applicability <strong>of</strong> this model in different cultural contexts. Glisby and Holden (2003) highlighted <strong>the</strong> reflection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Japanese cultural context in SECI and stressed that this model is more distinctive to Japanese culture in comparison to <strong>the</strong> western culture. Weir and Hutchings (2005) tested <strong>the</strong> applicability <strong>of</strong> this model in <strong>the</strong> Arab and Chinese context and examined some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> salient characteristics <strong>of</strong> business culture in <strong>the</strong> Arab world and China in terms <strong>of</strong> SECI model. Andreeva and Ikhilchik (2010) also tested <strong>the</strong> applicability <strong>of</strong> this model in <strong>the</strong> Russian context. Both groups <strong>of</strong> authors confirmed that <strong>the</strong> model was applicable in o<strong>the</strong>r contexts such as Arab, China and Russia, but <strong>the</strong>y stressed that <strong>the</strong> model should reflect <strong>the</strong> culture dimensions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se countries. Haag et al. (2010) argued that <strong>the</strong> SECI model is not universal but culturally situated because it stems from a particular context (Japan) and its processes are strongly influenced and shaped by culture and values. They argued that <strong>the</strong> SECI model is a contextualised model, due to adapting <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> ba, which is considered “to be a shared space that serves as a foundation for knowledge creation” (Nonaka and Konno, 1998, p. 40). This shared space also points to <strong>the</strong> cultural situatedness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SECI model as it suggests that contexts have to be shared with o<strong>the</strong>rs who have a similar understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> situation in order to be meaningful to <strong>the</strong>m–and members <strong>of</strong> a different culture <strong>of</strong>ten have quite different understandings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same situation. In particular, Haag et al. considered two <strong>of</strong> H<strong>of</strong>stede’s cultural value dimensions to investigate SECI model from <strong>the</strong> perspective <strong>of</strong> national culture dimensions. The first dimension is individualism/collectivism which has been widely used and applied in research to date (Haag et al., 2010). H<strong>of</strong>stede and H<strong>of</strong>stede (2005, p. 76) define individualism as “pertaining to societies in which <strong>the</strong> ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family”. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, collectivism “pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect <strong>the</strong>m in exchange for unquestioning loyalty” (H<strong>of</strong>stede and H<strong>of</strong>stede, 2005, p. 76). In addition to individualism/collectivism, <strong>the</strong> power distance dimension is ano<strong>the</strong>r important aspect <strong>of</strong> crosscultural differences at a national level. Power distance is defined as “<strong>the</strong> extent to which <strong>the</strong> less powerful members <strong>of</strong> institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally” (H<strong>of</strong>stede and H<strong>of</strong>stede, 2005, p. 46). Therefore <strong>the</strong>y concluded that SECI processes differ across cultures and that being conscious <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cultural situatedness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SECI model can lead to a more adequate use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> model for organizational knowledge creation. These findings were also highlighted by Nonaka and his associates <strong>the</strong>mselves by mentioning that “In knowledge creation, one cannot be free from context. Social, cultural and historical contexts are important for individuals as such contexts provide <strong>the</strong> basis for one to interpret information to create meanings” (Nonaka et al., 2000, p. 14). For more detail, <strong>the</strong> next section provides <strong>the</strong> features <strong>of</strong> Japan, China, Arab and Russia contexts related to each process <strong>of</strong> SECI. 3.1 Socialisation The first stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> model, socialisation, implies sharing tacit knowledge, both internally and externally. Nonaka and Takeuchi stressed that employees must be fundamentally willing to share knowledge internally in <strong>the</strong> organisation as well as externally with suppliers, customers and o<strong>the</strong>r stake-holders to make socialisation happen effectively (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Glisby and Holden (2003) suggested that internal sharing <strong>of</strong> tacit knowledge is enabled by strong personal affiliation with and commitment to organisation, cooperative attitudes between employees (ra<strong>the</strong>r than competitive ones) and a focus on developing close relationships with those who share <strong>the</strong> same fate (work for <strong>the</strong> same organisation). All <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se features are usually claimed to be distinctively part <strong>of</strong> Japanese culture. As for external sharing <strong>of</strong> tacit knowledge, Glisby and Holden claimed that it is facilitated by <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> networks <strong>of</strong> partners and close interrelationships between companies in <strong>the</strong> industry that characterise Japanese cultural context but may not be present in o<strong>the</strong>r societies. Thus, Glisby and Holden argued that <strong>the</strong> socialisation mode <strong>of</strong> knowledge conversion is itself a deeply “Japanese” process. They argued that <strong>the</strong> key to <strong>the</strong> knowledge-sharing process is personal commitment and <strong>the</strong> employees’ sense <strong>of</strong> identity with <strong>the</strong> enterprise and its mission and this kind <strong>of</strong> commitment and loyalty is rooted in Japanese cultural values. Japanese employees also use after-hours socialisation as a key means <strong>of</strong> sharing tacit knowledge, discussing all aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir companies over meals and in protracted drinking sessions. Glisby and Holden added that <strong>the</strong> Japanese are inclined to build strong interpersonal relationships with o<strong>the</strong>rs with whom <strong>the</strong>re is a 234
Nasser Easa and Robin Fincham strong sense <strong>of</strong> shared fate: people in one’s family, in <strong>the</strong> same company, from <strong>the</strong> same university, etc. In contrast, Weir and Hutchings (2005) in <strong>the</strong>ir analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> applicability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SECI model in Chinese and Arab contexts suggest that networking is a traditional and wide-spread practice both in China and <strong>the</strong> Arab world and thus conclude that socialisation works quite effectively in <strong>the</strong>se contexts. Socilaisation occurs in <strong>the</strong> Arab world primarily in <strong>the</strong> family context, which typically constitutes <strong>the</strong> fundamental matrix <strong>of</strong> social organisation. Thus, managers in Arab organisations are already pre-socialised and members <strong>of</strong> networks, and potential members <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs in a virtual sense. China is also a culture that demonstrates high level <strong>of</strong> socialisation and highly dependent upon <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> strong networks. Chinese are actually share knowledge freely but only within <strong>the</strong>ir trusted networks in which an insider relationship exists between transmitter and receiver. Therefore, in China <strong>the</strong> networks generally only operate on a departmental basis and consequently information is only shared within departments. This means that Chinese networks are mostly “short-distance” and are mostly concentrated inside departments, ra<strong>the</strong>r than between departments or between organisations. It seems that this fact implies, contrary to <strong>the</strong> conclusion <strong>of</strong>, Weir and Hutchings that at least external sharing <strong>of</strong> tacit knowledge is limited in Chinese cultural context as compared to Japanese one. In <strong>the</strong> Russian context, Andreeva and Ikhilchik (2010) mentioned that <strong>the</strong>re are differences and similarities between Russian and Japanese contexts, in terms <strong>of</strong> enabling SECI processes. Although <strong>the</strong>y mentioned that <strong>the</strong> differences heavily outweigh <strong>the</strong> similarities <strong>the</strong>y concluded that SECI can be applied in <strong>the</strong> Russian context. For socialisation, Andreeva and Ikhilchik argued that individuals’ willingness to share knowledge, both internally and externally, seems not to be common in Russia. People in Russia consider knowledge as individual power that should not be shared unless necessary and unless proper benefits are received. Regarding <strong>the</strong> intensity <strong>of</strong> networking with external partners, this differs in Russia among different industries, but usually is not very strong. A competitive atmosphere and obsession with privacy <strong>of</strong> information in many cases prevent Russian companies from building relationships with external partners. A job design that allows sharing <strong>of</strong> experience also does not seem to be very easy in Russian companies, as it needs a lack <strong>of</strong> fear <strong>of</strong> mistakes and enough time for experimentation, that can be difficult to negotiate with managers due to <strong>the</strong> dominating focus on short-term results. Andreeva and Ikhilchik (2010) claimed that <strong>the</strong> only similarity between <strong>the</strong> Russia and Japan contexts to support socialisation is <strong>the</strong> mentoring which has been a common practice during Soviet times and is still used nowadays. However, <strong>the</strong>y mentioned that <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> mentoring in Russia usually is in much more limited sense compared to Japan. Most companies limit mentoring to <strong>the</strong> probation period <strong>of</strong> new employees, and <strong>the</strong> mentor’s responsibilities concern mainly explaining general organisational policies ra<strong>the</strong>r than intensive sharing experience and learning through observation and limitation. This argument <strong>of</strong> Andreeva and Ikhilchik makes <strong>the</strong>ir claim, that SECI processes have universal application, controversial. Regarding <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> H<strong>of</strong>stede’s cultural dimensions, Haag et al. (2010) suggested that <strong>the</strong> cultural dimensions strongly influence <strong>the</strong> socialisation mode. They explained that cultures with high collectivism are more socialised because <strong>the</strong> socialisation mode is closely connected with group processes. In contrast, cultures that score low on power distance are more likely to support an open and non-threatening environment for brainstorming than cultures that score high on power distance (H<strong>of</strong>stede and H<strong>of</strong>stede, 2005; Haag, et al., 2010). 3.2 Externalisation The next stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SECI model, externalisation, implies converting tacit knowledge into explicit. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) and Nonaka and Konno (1998) emphasised <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> group commitment for its realisation. H<strong>of</strong>stede and H<strong>of</strong>stede (2005) suggested that group orientation is a specific feature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Japanese culture. In addition, Glisby and Holden (2003) mentioned that in Japan group orientation must be seen in conjunction with <strong>the</strong> pre-eminent concern for <strong>the</strong> attainment <strong>of</strong> harmony in human relationships and suggested that Japanese organisations experience much less pressure from shareholders than <strong>the</strong>ir Western companies, and thus <strong>the</strong>y simply can spend <strong>the</strong>ir resources (including time) more freely to do things <strong>the</strong> way <strong>the</strong>y want to, which includes externalising knowledge. They argued that Japanese organisations can afford to devote much more attention to <strong>the</strong> time-consuming and diffuse processes <strong>of</strong> explicating tacit knowledge. Japanese culture as manifested in inter-firm relations/ networks, collegiality, corporate affiliation, <strong>the</strong> employment system, personal relations and so forth provides a kind <strong>of</strong> natural backdrop for <strong>the</strong> willing and open sharing <strong>of</strong> tacit 235
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Proceedings <stron
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Contents Title Author(s) Picture <s
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Title Author(s) Picture of<
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Volume Two The Influence of
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The Symbolic Innovation of<
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Biographies of <st
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Jan Pawlowski works as Prof
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in academia. He holds the</
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Biomedical Engineering Research Cen
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Mathematics and Ph
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Thi Hai Hang Nguyen is a lecturer a
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Dan Savescu graduate TCM Faculty, p
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Abdallah Al-Shawabkeh, Alexander K<
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Table 1: Inn-KM approach contents 2
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Knowledge Dynamics and Organisation
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Eckhard Ammann We distinguish three
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Eckhard Ammann quality dimension ar
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Eckhard Ammann The second cycle, Cy
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Figure 7: Supervised learning-by-do
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Identifying and Ranking the
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Manouchehr Ansari et al users <stro
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2.5 leadership and strategy Manouch
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Contextual Adaptive Visualization E
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Leila Beig et al Figure 3 visually
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4. Results and discussion Pavel Bog
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Table 2: Synthesis
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Strategies for Increasing Knowledge
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Adriana Schiopoiu Burlea 3. ESF rol
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3.2 Discussions Adriana Schiopoiu B
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Simon Cadez and Vlado Dimovski with
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Simon Cadez and Vlado Dimovski scho
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Why Should I Share my new ideas? Cu
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Francesco Calza, Rossella Canestrin
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A proposed Framework for Discoverin
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2.3 Knowledge mapping Mohamad Ali F
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Knowledge Workers: A Typology Frame
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Jiří Franek and Eva Grublova crea
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Jiří Franek and Eva Grublova Know
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Middle Managers’ Maturity <strong
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Zoltán Gaál et al investigated m
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Adoption of Knowle
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1.1.2 SMEs and KMS Tendayi Gondo an
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Tendayi Gondo and Edmore Kori ambit
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The Chain Value Process and Knowled
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Manel González-Piñero et al Captu
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References Manel González-Piñero
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Nebojsa Graca and Ana Lucija Gojako
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creating new, added, essential qual
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Understanding Personal Knowledge De
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Developing a Knowledge Strategy Usi
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From Knowledge Acquisition to Knowl
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2.3.4 Types of Kno
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Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Knowledge ...

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