An Afro-Indigenous History of the United States

the initiative strikes which open the Atlantic Slave Trade in the fifteenth century of our Christ,
interrupted hundreds of years of black African culture” (p. 69).
8. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America (1935; repr., Mill-wood, NY: Kraus-
Thomson, 1976), 4.
9. Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 3.
10. Vincent Carretta, Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man (New York & London:
Penguin Books, 2005), 8.
11. Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 2016), 126. Sinha also writes, “The identity of displaced Africans was highly malleable and
subject to arbitrary categorization by European authorities. Carretta’s evidence, in short, is not
definitive.”
12. Chima J. Korieth, ed., Olaudah Equiano and the Igbo World: History, Society, and Atlantic
Diaspora Connections (Trenton, NJ, and Asamara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 2008), 7.
13. Maureen N. Eke, “(Re)Imagining Community: Olaudah Equiano and the Re(Construction) of
Igbo (African) Identity,” Olaudah Equiano and the Igbo World, 24.
14. Eke, “(Re)Imagining Community,” 36.
15. Olaudah Equiano and Vincent Carretta, The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings: Revised
Edition (New York: Penguin Classics, 2003), 60.
16. Equiano and Carretta, The Interesting Narrative, 56.
17. Robinson, Black Marxism, 309.
18. Sinha, The Slave’s Cause, 29.
19. Henry Louis Gates Jr., The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America’s First Black Poet and Her
Encounters with the Founding Fathers (New York: BasicCivitas Books, 2003), 20. For an analysis of
the French and Indian War, see Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics
in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), chapter 5,
“The Clash of Empires,” 222–68.
20. Vincent Carretta, Phillis Wheatley: Biography of a Genius in Bondage (Athens: University of
Georgia Press, 2011), 8–10.
21. Phillis Wheatley, “On Being Brought from Africa to America,” Poetry Foundation website,
https://poets.org/poem/being-brought-africa-america (accessed November 20, 2019).
22. Sinha, The Slave’s Cause, 31.
23. For the letter, see “Letter to Reverend Samson Occum,” Connecticut Gazette, March 11, 1774,
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2h19t.html, accessed March 22, 2021.
24. Stuckey, Slave Culture, 24.
25. Walker, “In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens,” 404.
26. Caryn E. Neumann, “Prince, Lucy Terry,” in Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–
1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass, ed. Paul Finkelman, Oxford
African American Studies Center (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008),
http://www.oxfordaasc.com/article/opr/t0004/e0460.
27. “Bars Fight,” Africans in America, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2h1592t.html.
28. Josiah Gilbert Holland, History of Western Massachusetts (Springfield, MA: Samuel Bowles
and Company, 1855).
29. Sharon M. Harris, “Lucy Terry: A Life of Radical Resistance,” in African American Culture
and Legal Discourse, ed. Lovalrie King and Richard Schur (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009),
107–10.
30. Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in
America (New York: Nation Books, 2016), 10.
31. Henry Louis Gates Jr. “Who Led the First Back-to-Africa Effort?,” The African Americans:
Many Rivers to Cross, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-