An Afro-Indigenous History of the United States

9. Claud Anderson, Black Labor, White Wealth: The Search for Power and Economic Justice
(Bethesda, MD: PowerNomics Corporation of America, 1994), 77.
10. Miles, Ties That Bind, 5.
11. Lisa Ford, Settler Sovereignty: Jurisdiction and Indigenous People in America and Australia,
1788–1836 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 36. Ford goes as far as to say that the
way the Cherokees constructed an idea of race, as one tied to their sovereignty, was similar to how
settlers constructed race in the state of Georgia.
12. For a history of the Seminole nation, especially people of African descent, see Kenneth Porter,
The Black Seminoles: A History of Freedom-Seeking People (Gainesville: Florida University Press,
1996). Another perspective includes the work of Susan A. Miller. For instance, see Susan A. Miller,
“Seminoles and Africans Under Seminole Law: Sources and Discourses of Tribal Sovereignty and
‘Black Indian’ Entitlement,” Wicazo Sa Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 23–47. While Miller
believes that the Seminole Nation were forced into accepting people of African descent with the
treaty of 1866 following the Civil War, she does acknowledge that they have other “indigenous roots”
based in Africa. Miller contends that Africans cannot “be both Indigenous Maroons and assimilated
Americans, however, so their indigenous identity is at play in this transaction. From an American
Indian studies perspective, the Freedmen retain the indigenous status of their African forbears, and
therefore, the United States owes them recognition as an Indigenous people” (44). See also Susan A.
Miller’s, Coacoochee’s Bones: A Seminole Saga (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003).
13. “Jackson Criticizes Oakland Schools’ ‘Ebonics’ Decision,” Los Angeles Times, December 23,
1996, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-23-mn-11966-story.html.
14. “Print the Legend: Writing the Screenplay for Harriet,” Focus Features,
https://www.focusfeatures.com/article/interview_screenwriter_gregory-allen-howard, accessed July
27, 2020.
15. Alaina E. Roberts, “How Native Americans Adopted Slavery from White Settlers,” Al Jazeera,
December 26, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/native-americans-adopted-slaverywhite-settlers-181225180750948.html.
16. Harriet, directed by Kasi Lemmons (Los Angeles: Focus Features, 2019).
17. Miles, The House on Diamond Hill, 24. Miles notes that James Vann, owner of the Diamond
Hill Vann plantation, was a tyrant and could be exceptionally cruel.
18. Peter Cozzens, Tecumseh and the Prophet: The Shawnee Brothers Who Defied a Nation (New
York: Penguin Random House, 2020), xiii.
19. Cozzens, Tecumseh and the Prophet, 197.
20. Cave A. Alfred, Prophets of the Great Spirit: Native American Revitalization Movements in
Eastern North America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 91–139.
21. Cozzens, Tecumseh and the Prophet, xvii.
22. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States (Boston: Beacon
Press, 2014), 84–85.
23. Shawnee Chief Tecumseh Address to General William Henry Harrison, probably delivered in
1810, at Vincennes in the Indiana Territory,
https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/nativeamericans/chieftecumseh.htm (accessed
December 20, 2019).
24. Tecumseh Address to Harrison.
25. Tecumseh Address to Harrison.
26. Tecumseh Address to Harrison.
27. While Parker describes her name as “the sound the stars make rushing through the sky,”
Margaret Noori, a scholar of Anishinaabemowin, translates this slightly differently in a review of
Parker’s book. See Margaret Noori, “The Complex World of Jane Johnston Schoolcraft,” Michigan
Quarterly Review 47, no. 1 (Winter 2008), http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.act2080.0047.121.