Who Needs Emotions? The Brain Meets the Robot

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obot emotion 293 According to Rolls (see Chapter 5), emotions can be pragmatically defined as states elicited by rewards and punishments, where a reward is something for which an animal will work and a punishment is something it will work to escape or avoid. Kismet’s affective appraisal process involves assessing whether something is rewarding or punishing and tagging it with a value that reflects its expected benefit or harm (see also Chapter 7, Ortony et al.). The emotive system combines the myriad affectively tagged inputs to compute the net affective state of the robot. Similar to Rolls, the affective tags serve as the common currency for the inputs to the response-selection mechanism. Thus, they are used to determine the most relevant emotive response for the given situation. Once a particular emotive response is active, Kismet engages in a process of behavioral homeostasis, where the active emotive response maintains behavioral activity in its particular manner through external and internal feedback until the correct relation of robot to environment is established (Plutchik, 1991). Kismet’s desired internal and external relationship is comprised of two factors: whether the robot’s homeostatic needs are being met in a timely manner and whether its net affective state corresponds to a mildly positive, aroused, and open state. When Kismet’s internal state diverges from this desired internal relationship, the robot will work to restore the balance—to acquire desired stimuli, to avoid undesired stimuli, and to escape dangerous stimuli. Each emotive response carries this out in a distinct fashion by interacting with the cognitive system to evoke a characteristic behavioral pattern and to socially cue others as to whether the interaction is appropriate or not (and how they might respond to correct the problem). (A detailed description of the implementation of each emotive response can be found in Breazeal, 2002a.) Functions of Basic Emotions The organization and operation of Kismet’s emotive system is strongly inspired by various theories of basic emotions in humans and other animals (Ekman, 1992). These few select emotions are endowed by evolution because of their proven ability to facilitate adaptive responses that promote a creature’s daily survival in a complex and often hostile environment. Basic emotions are “independent” emotions because their emergence does not require or reduce to cognitive processes (Ackerman, Abe, & Izard, 1998). As shown in Table 10.2, a number of basic emotive responses have been implemented in Kismet. This table is derived from the cross-species and social functions hypothesized by Izard and Ackerman (2000) and Plutchik (1991).
294 robots Table 10.2. Summary of the Antecedents and Behavioral Responses that Comprise Kismet’s Emotive Responses Antecedent Conditions Emotion Behavior Function Delay, difficulty in achieving goal of active behavior Presence of an undesired stimulus Presence of a threatening or overwhelming stimulus Prolonged presence of a desired stimulus Success in achieving goal of active behavior or praise Prolonged absence of a desired stimulus or scolding A sudden, close stimulus Appearance of a desired stimulus Absence of stimulus Anger, frustration Disgust Fear, distress Calm Joy Sorrow Surprise Interest Boredom Display agitation, energize Withdraw Display fear, escape Engage Display pleasure Display sorrow Startle response Orient, explore Seek Show displeasure to modify human’s behavior; try new behavior to surmount blocked goal Signal rejection of presented stimulus Move away from a potentially dangerous stimulus Continued interaction with a desired stimulus Reallocate resources to the next relevant behavior Evoke sympathy and attention from human Alert Attend to new, salient object, engage Explore environment for desired stimulus Antecedents are the eliciting perceptual conditions for each emotion. The behavior column denotes the observable response that becomes active with the emotion. For some, this is simply a facial expression. For others, it is a behavior such as escape. The column to the right describes the function each emotive response serves for Kismet. Anger In living systems, anger serves to mobilize and sustain energy and vigorous motor activity at high levels (Tomkins, 1963). It is often elicited when progress toward a goal is hindered or blocked. Similarly, in Kismet, a frustrated state (increasing in intensity to anger) arises when progress toward the current goal is slow. This mobilizes the robot to try alternate strategies. Disgust Tomkins (1963) describes disgust as a reaction to unwanted intimacy with a repellent entity. Generally speaking, disgust is manifested as a distancing from some object, event, or situation and can be characterized as rejection
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TLFeBOOK Who Needs Emotions? The Br
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The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental
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3 Oxford University Press, Inc., pu
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vi preface want their computer prog
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viii preface is required because th
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x preface prefer to read Part III b
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xii contents PART III: ROBOTS 7 Aff
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xiv contributors Jean-Marc Fellous
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4 perspectives RUSSELL: I confess t
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6 perspectives EDISON: Tinkering! Y
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10 perspectives HOW COULD WE TELL I
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12 perspectives This, of course, ra
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14 perspectives of a stimulus (e.g.
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16 perspectives an emotion is neith
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18 perspectives cognitive processes
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20 perspectives that they visually
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22 perspectives A self-model that c
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24 perspectives Brothers, L. (1997)
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30 brains specificity and flexibili
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32 brains It is useful to begin wit
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34 brains the readout of that syste
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36 brains A. 5 NH 4Cl Bacteria in c
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38 brains Although instinctual beha
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40 brains Motivated behavior requir
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42 brains emerged through decades o
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44 brains and gonadal and adrenal s
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46 brains voluntary control of acti
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48 brains A. Total cerebral input t
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50 brains sensory neurons, interneu
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52 brains functions. Niall (1982) n
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54 brains motivation arousal necess
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56 brains serotonergic system is pr
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58 brains as tree jumping (Doudet e
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60 brains then have a system that a
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62 brains heroin and other opiates,
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64 brains benefits that also presen
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66 brains and brain neurotransmitte
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68 brains Cardinaud, B., Gilbert, J
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70 brains Hess, W. R. (1957). The f
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72 brains MacLean, P. D. (1990). Th
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74 brains Pfaus, J. G., Damsma, G.,
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76 brains trained monkeys: Agonist
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80 brains We conclude by discussing
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82 brains to prove, theoretical dis
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84 brains is a mammalian specializa
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86 brains processing circuits to se
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88 brains amygdala) and the control
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90 brains comparison of the amygdal
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92 brains Is the Amygdala Necessary
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94 brains the amygdala to determine
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96 brains The medial prefrontal cor
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98 brains Many questions remain to
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100 brains by the amygdala might be
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102 brains United States, pair up w
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104 brains networks that participat
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106 brains Note Portions of this ch
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108 brains Davidson, R. J., & Irwin
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110 brains mediate emotional respon
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112 brains Salinas, J. A. (1995). I
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114 brains and thalamo-cortico-amyg
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118 brains and flexible in the orbi
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120 brains Pleasure Rage Anger Frus
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122 brains of the eliciting stimulu
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124 brains or a right turn to obtai
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126 brains cortex and basal ganglia
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128 brains tex of recent (episodic)
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130 brains the right value in the c
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132 brains by the process of condit
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134 brains memories to be held in p
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136 brains However, it may be expec
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138 brains Figure 5.4. Some of the
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140 brains acting through the ventr
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142 brains (cutting white matter) w
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144 brains References Alexander, R.
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146 brains Rolls, E. T. (1999a). Th
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148 brains directed to us or when t
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150 brains Specific methods, partly
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152 brains Movements performed by l
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154 brains processing of invariant
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156 brains more about them, their r
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158 brains see Zajonc, 1985), the i
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160 brains The question now arises
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162 brains situations where they ha
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164 brains Estimation of social con
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166 brains Davies, M., & Stone, T.
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168 brains Lhermitte, F. (1983). Ut
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174 robots perform unanticipated ta
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176 Table 7.1. Principal Organism F
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178 robots and cognitive domains. A
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180 robots that they are better tho
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182 robots irregularities or discon
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184 robots 3. A (positive) feeling
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186 robots We consider the well-est
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188 robots disturbed by the approac
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190 robots processing. We view para
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192 robots independent, a value on
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194 robots Implications of the Proc
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196 robots current affective state
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198 robots primitive fear at the ro
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200 robots Gray, J. A. (1990). Brai
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202 robots cesses underlying approa
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204 robots case of CogAff, conjectu
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206 robots some cases and in other
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208 robots DIRECT AND MEDIATED CONT
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210 robots Toward a Useful Ontology
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212 robots different varieties of m
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214 robots Primitive sensors provid
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216 robots Being in a state P of a
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218 robots terms of the ability to
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220 robots Varieties of Affective S
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222 robots Central Perception Actio
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224 robots control, where all the l
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226 robots layer (e.g., observing p
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228 robots are sometimes unclear, i
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230 robots for such a fast-acting s
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232 robots from mental processes ot
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234 robots The majority view in thi
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236 robots Will it be a long-term f
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238 robots or implicitly adopted de
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240 robots some undesirable emotion
Page 259 and 260: 242 robots References Albus, J. S.,
Page 261 and 262: 244 robots Sloman, A. (2001b). Evol
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Page 265 and 266: 248 robots In order to make robots
Page 267 and 268: 250 robots motivational state also
Page 269 and 270: 252 robots Prey acquisition: This b
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Page 273 and 274: 256 robots especially when young. E
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Page 295 and 296: 278 robots For example, the person
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360 conclusions directly and by pro
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362 conclusions striatum pallidum d
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364 conclusions (A) Auditory stimul
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378 conclusions 3. As already noted
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380 conclusions Fellous, J.-M., & S
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382 conclusions Localization of gra
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386 index amygdala back projection,
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388 index cognition (continued) evo
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390 index emotion research (continu
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392 index fear conditioning (contin
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394 index limbic system theory, 80-
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396 index prefrontal cortex and the
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398 index schema theory and Jackson
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Who Needs Emotions? The Brain Meets the Robot

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