Who Needs Emotions? The Brain Meets the Robot

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eware the passionate robot 361 insist that the origins of emotional states are based on the cognitive construal of events, with cognition being presupposed by the physiological, behavioral, and expressive aspects of emotion. However, is the addition of a cognitive evaluation, unlinked to a physiological structure, enough to convert information processing into emotion? While I find great value in the attempt of Ortony, Clore, and Collins to see how different cognitive structures may relate to different emotional states, it gives no sense of the “heat” of emotion that I tried to convey in my short narrative. I argue here that the “heat” is added to the appraisal because the cerebral cortex is linked to basic motivational systems, while human emotions are so much more varied and subtle than mere hunger or thirst because basic motivational systems are integrated with cortical systems that can provide varied appraisals. My approach will be to integrate insights from chapters by Kelley, Rolls, and Fellous & LeDoux with the evolutionary perspective provided above while confronting the personal data set of my emotional narrative. Behavioral Control Columns To start, we must note that a full analysis of motivated behavior must include not only the somatomotor behavior (e.g., feeding and fleeing; other forms relevant to the study of motivation-related behavior include orofacial responses and defensive and mating activities) but also autonomic output (e.g., heart rate and blood pressure) and visceroendocrine output (cortisol, adrenaline, release of sex hormones). In general, behavior will combine effects of all three kinds. Kelley (Chapter 3) places special emphasis on Swanson’s (2000) notion of the behavioral control column (Fig. 12.3). This is a column of nuclei arrayed along the brain stem. Swanson proposes that very specific and highly interconnected sets of nuclei in the hypothalamus are devoted to the elaboration and control of specific behaviors necessary for survival: spontaneous locomotion, exploration, ingestive, defensive, and reproductive behaviors. Animals with chronic transections above the hypothalamus can more or less eat, drink, reproduce, and show defensive behaviors, whereas if the brain is transected below the hypothalamus, the animal displays only fragments of these behaviors, enabled by motor pattern generators in the brain stem. As Kelley notes, many instances of motivated behavior—eating, drinking, grooming, attacking, sleeping, maternal behavior, hoarding, copulating—have been evoked by direct electrical or chemical stimulation of the hypothalamus. The behavioral control column contains a rostral and a more caudal segment. The former contains nuclei involved in ingestive and social (reproductive and defensive) behaviors such as sexually dimorphic behaviors, defensive
362 conclusions striatum pallidum dorsal thalamus PR MN LZ pro suo tub mam SC TH pallidum Figure 12.3. Major features of cerebral hemisphere regulation of motivated behavior, according to Swanson, as seen on a flatmap of the rat central nervous system. (Left) The neuroendocrine motor zone, shown in black, and three subgroups of hypothalamic nuclei: the periventricular region (PR) most centrally, the medial nuclei (MN,) and the lateral zone (LZ). The PR contains a visceromotor pattern generator network, and the medial nuclei (MN) form the rostral end of the behavior control column. In addition to this longitudinal division, the hypothalamus can be divided into four transverse regions based on the characteristic medial nucleus residing within it: preoptic (pro), supraoptic or anterior (suo), tuberal (tub), and mammillary (mam). (Center) An overview of the behavior control column. Almost all nuclei in this column generate a dual, typically branched projection, descending to the motor system and ascending to thalamocortical loops: AHN, anterior hypothalamic nucleus; MAM, mammillary body; MPN, medial preoptic nucleus (lateral part in particular); PMdv, premammillary nuclei, dorsal ventral; PVHd, descending division of paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus; SC, superior colliculus, deeper layers; SNr, reticular substantia nigra; TH, dorsal thalamus; TU, tuberal nucleus; VMH, ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus; VTA, ventral tegmental area. (Right) Triple cascading projection from the cerebral hemispheres to the brain-stem motor system. This minimal or prototypical circuit element consists of a glutamatergic (GLU) projection from layer 5 pyramidal neurons of the isocortex (or equivalent pyramidal neurons in allocortex), with a glutamatergic collateral to the striatum. This dual projection appears to be excitatory (e, +). The striatum then generates a g-aminobutyric acid-ergic (GABAergic) projection to the motor system with a GABAergic collateral to the pallidum. This dual striatal projection appears to be inhibitory (i, –). Finally, the pallidum generates a GABAergic projection to the brain-stem motor system, with a GABAergic collateral to the dorsal thalamus. This dual pallidal projection can be viewed as disinhibitory (d, –) because it is inhibited by the striatal input. (Adapted from Swanson, 2000, Figs. 8, 10, 14, respectively.) 362 AHN PVHd PMv PMd MAM SNr MPN VMH/ TU VTA GLU striatum GABA GABA e + i - d (-) thalamus - cor tex 5 +
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TLFeBOOK Who Needs Emotions? The Br
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The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental
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3 Oxford University Press, Inc., pu
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vi preface want their computer prog
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viii preface is required because th
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x preface prefer to read Part III b
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xii contents PART III: ROBOTS 7 Aff
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xiv contributors Jean-Marc Fellous
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4 perspectives RUSSELL: I confess t
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6 perspectives EDISON: Tinkering! Y
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10 perspectives HOW COULD WE TELL I
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12 perspectives This, of course, ra
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14 perspectives of a stimulus (e.g.
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16 perspectives an emotion is neith
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18 perspectives cognitive processes
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20 perspectives that they visually
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22 perspectives A self-model that c
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24 perspectives Brothers, L. (1997)
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30 brains specificity and flexibili
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32 brains It is useful to begin wit
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34 brains the readout of that syste
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36 brains A. 5 NH 4Cl Bacteria in c
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38 brains Although instinctual beha
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40 brains Motivated behavior requir
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42 brains emerged through decades o
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44 brains and gonadal and adrenal s
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46 brains voluntary control of acti
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48 brains A. Total cerebral input t
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50 brains sensory neurons, interneu
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52 brains functions. Niall (1982) n
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54 brains motivation arousal necess
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56 brains serotonergic system is pr
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58 brains as tree jumping (Doudet e
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60 brains then have a system that a
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62 brains heroin and other opiates,
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64 brains benefits that also presen
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66 brains and brain neurotransmitte
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68 brains Cardinaud, B., Gilbert, J
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70 brains Hess, W. R. (1957). The f
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72 brains MacLean, P. D. (1990). Th
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74 brains Pfaus, J. G., Damsma, G.,
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76 brains trained monkeys: Agonist
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80 brains We conclude by discussing
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82 brains to prove, theoretical dis
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84 brains is a mammalian specializa
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86 brains processing circuits to se
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88 brains amygdala) and the control
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90 brains comparison of the amygdal
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92 brains Is the Amygdala Necessary
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94 brains the amygdala to determine
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96 brains The medial prefrontal cor
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98 brains Many questions remain to
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100 brains by the amygdala might be
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102 brains United States, pair up w
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104 brains networks that participat
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106 brains Note Portions of this ch
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108 brains Davidson, R. J., & Irwin
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110 brains mediate emotional respon
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112 brains Salinas, J. A. (1995). I
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114 brains and thalamo-cortico-amyg
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118 brains and flexible in the orbi
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120 brains Pleasure Rage Anger Frus
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122 brains of the eliciting stimulu
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124 brains or a right turn to obtai
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126 brains cortex and basal ganglia
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128 brains tex of recent (episodic)
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130 brains the right value in the c
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132 brains by the process of condit
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134 brains memories to be held in p
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136 brains However, it may be expec
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138 brains Figure 5.4. Some of the
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140 brains acting through the ventr
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142 brains (cutting white matter) w
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144 brains References Alexander, R.
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146 brains Rolls, E. T. (1999a). Th
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148 brains directed to us or when t
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150 brains Specific methods, partly
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152 brains Movements performed by l
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154 brains processing of invariant
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156 brains more about them, their r
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158 brains see Zajonc, 1985), the i
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160 brains The question now arises
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162 brains situations where they ha
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164 brains Estimation of social con
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166 brains Davies, M., & Stone, T.
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168 brains Lhermitte, F. (1983). Ut
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174 robots perform unanticipated ta
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176 Table 7.1. Principal Organism F
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178 robots and cognitive domains. A
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180 robots that they are better tho
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182 robots irregularities or discon
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184 robots 3. A (positive) feeling
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186 robots We consider the well-est
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188 robots disturbed by the approac
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190 robots processing. We view para
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192 robots independent, a value on
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194 robots Implications of the Proc
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196 robots current affective state
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198 robots primitive fear at the ro
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200 robots Gray, J. A. (1990). Brai
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202 robots cesses underlying approa
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204 robots case of CogAff, conjectu
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206 robots some cases and in other
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208 robots DIRECT AND MEDIATED CONT
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210 robots Toward a Useful Ontology
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212 robots different varieties of m
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214 robots Primitive sensors provid
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216 robots Being in a state P of a
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218 robots terms of the ability to
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220 robots Varieties of Affective S
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222 robots Central Perception Actio
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224 robots control, where all the l
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226 robots layer (e.g., observing p
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228 robots are sometimes unclear, i
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230 robots for such a fast-acting s
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232 robots from mental processes ot
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234 robots The majority view in thi
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236 robots Will it be a long-term f
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238 robots or implicitly adopted de
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240 robots some undesirable emotion
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242 robots References Albus, J. S.,
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244 robots Sloman, A. (2001b). Evol
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246 robots state variables such as
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248 robots In order to make robots
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250 robots motivational state also
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252 robots Prey acquisition: This b
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254 robots Figure 9.3. Top photos:
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256 robots especially when young. E
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258 robots Object of Attachment Saf
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260 robots Mean distance to attachm
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262 robots 2003), but the intent is
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264 robots Affective State Emotion
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266 robots Motivational/emotional m
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268 robots Brooks, R. (1986). A rob
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272 robots responsible for perceivi
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274 robots species considered to be
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276 robots This endeavor does not i
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278 robots For example, the person
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280 robots mental states (i.e., int
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282 robots Expression of Affective
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284 robots Negative valence High ar
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286 robots and emotion-related proc
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288 robots For instance, the visual
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290 robots Undesired stimulus Rejec
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292 robots intensity: seek or acqui
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294 robots Table 10.2. Summary of t
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296 robots it up (Breazeal, 2002b).
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298 robots pitch, f o (kHz) pitch,
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300 robots Table 10.3. Overall Clas
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302 robots Each emotion gateway pro
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304 robots Biasing Attention Kismet
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306 robots be to vocalize to the pe
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308 robots References Ackerman, B.,
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Page 351 and 352: 334 conclusions handout and pleased
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Page 397 and 398: 380 conclusions Fellous, J.-M., & S
Page 399 and 400: 382 conclusions Localization of gra
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