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A-Z 487Hopper (1988) see grammaticalization as a process of fossilization of discoursepragmaticstrategies. Traugott and König (1991) propose conversational principles(specifically content, relevance) as the cause of changes of meaning in grammaticalizationprocesses. (d) Are there any universal principles for the direction ofgrammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such ‘directed’ principlesinclude: (i) increasing schematicization (Talmy 1988); (ii) increasing generalization(Bybee and Pagliuca 1985); (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning (Traugott 1989); and(iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity (Langacker 1989).So far, grammaticalization processes have been studied in reference to the followingareas: gender marking (Greenberg 1978), pronouns (Givón 1976), switch reference(Frajzyngier 1986), serial verb constructions (Givón 1975; Lord 1976), modal andepistemic expressions (Shepherd 1982; Sweetser 1984; Traugott 1989), concessive andconditional conjunctions (König 1985, 1986; Traugott 1985), causal conjunctions(Traugott 1982), conjunctions (Traugott 1986; Batzeev Shyldkrot and Kemmer (1988),middle voice and reflexivity (Kemmer 1988), terms for parts of the body (Wilkins1980).ReferencesAxmaker, S. et al. (eds) 1988. Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Berkeley LinguisticsSociety, vol. 14: General session and parasession on grammaticalization. Berkeley, CA.Batzeev Shyldkrot, H. and S.Kemmer. 1988. Le développement semantique des conjonctions enfrançais: quelques concepts généraux. RLiR 23. 9–20.Bybee, J. and W.Pagliuca. 1985. Cross-linguistic comparison and the development of grammaticalmeanings. In J.Fisiak (ed.), Historical semantics and historical word formation. Berlin. 263–82.Claudi, G. and B.Heine. 1986. On the metaphorical base of grammar. SLang 10.297–335.Frajzyngier, Z. 1986. Grammaticalization through analysis: a case of switch reference. Proceedingsof the second annual meeting of the Pacific Linguistics Conference. ed. by S.Delancey andR.S.Tomlin. Eugene, OR. 125–40.Givón, T. 1975. Serial verbs and syntactic change: Niger-Congo. In C.N. Li (ed.), Word order andword order change. Austin, TX. 47–112.——1976. Topic, pronoun and grammatical agreement. In C.N.Li (ed.). Subject and topic. NewYork. 151–88.——1979. On understanding grammar. New York.Greenberg, J.H. 1978. How does a language acquire gender markers? In J.H.Greenberg (ed.),Universals of human language. Stanford. CA. Vol. 3, 47–82.Heine, B. and M.Reh. 1984. Grammaticalization and reanalysis in African languages. Hamburg.Heine, B. and E.C.Traugott (eds) 1991. Approaches to grammaticalization, 2 vols. Amsterdam.Heine, B., U.Claudi. and F.Hünnemeyer. 1991. Grammaticalization: a conceptual framework.Chicago. IL.Hopper, P.J. 1988. Emergent grammar and the a priori grammar postulate. In D.Tannen (ed.),Linguistics in context: connecting observation and understanding. Norwood, NJ. 117–34.Hopper, P.J. and E.C.Traugott, 1993. Grammaticalization. Cambridge.Kemmer, S. 1993. The middle voice: a typological and diachronic study. Amsterdam andPhiladelphia.König, R. 1986. Conditionals, concessive conditionals, and concessive: areas of contrast, overlapand neutralization. In E.C.Traugott et al. (eds), On conditionals. Cambridge. 229–46.