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A-Z 959proportional analogyanalogyproportional clauseSemantically defined modal clause functioning as an adverbial modifier to indicate adependency relationship proportional to the state of affairs expressed in the main clause.They are introduced by the+comparative in both the dependent and independent clauses:The closer they came to the city, the more excited they became.proportional oppositionoppositionproposition [Lat. propositio ‘statement of thefacts or substance of a case’]Term adopted by semantics and speech act theory from philosophy and formal logic(where a proposition is usually designated by ‘that p’). By ‘proposition’ one usuallyunderstands the language-independent common denominator of the meaning of sentenceswhich express the factuality of a given state of affairs. In appropriate utterances of thesentences Phil smokes habitually. /Does Phil really smoke habitually? /It is not true thatPhil smokes habitually. /If Phil smokes habitually, then he will not live much longer,every time the same reference (i.e. to Phil) and the same predication (i.e. of habitualsmoking) is made, quite independent of the illocutionary force (assertion, question,denial, etc.). Thus, a proposition is the semantic kernel of a sentence that determines itstruth conditions, regardless of the syntactic form and lexical filling of the given form ofexpression. A distinction is drawn between ‘coarser’ concepts of proposition, accordingto which, for example, all logically true sentences denote the same proposition, and‘finer’ concepts of proposition, in which this is not the case. While older semantic models(cf. possible world semantics) conceived of propositions as unstructured units, the needfor a structured concept of proposition in linguistics is now more and more accepted (cf.situation semantics). Since propositional acts (i.e. acts of expressing a proposition) arealways constituents of illocutionary acts (illocution) and therefore cannot occurindependently, they must be distinguished from statements (i.e. illocutionary acts) inwhich propositions are asserted and not just expressed.
Dictionary of language and linguistics 960ReferencesAustin, J.L. 1950. Truth. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 24. (Repr. in his Philosophicalpapers. Oxford. 1961. 117–33.)Barwise, J. and J.Etchemendy. 1987. The liar: an essay in truth and circularity. Oxford.Cresswell, M.J. 1973. Logic and languages. London, Chs 3–4.——1985. Structured meanings: the semantics of propositional attitudes. Cambridge, MA.Kearns, J.T. 1972. Propositions and truth in natural languages. Mind 81. 225–43.Nuchelmans, G. 1973. Theories of propositions. Amsterdam.Russell, B. and A.N.Whitehead. 1910/13. Principia mathematica. Cambridge.Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge.Stalnaker, R.C. 1984. Inquiry. Cambridge, MA.——1985. Propositions. In A.P.Martenich (ed.), The philosophy of language. Oxford. 373–80.propositional calculuspropositional logicpropositional island constraint (also tensed-S-condition, wh-island constraint)A constraint proposed by N.Chomsky on the use of transformational rules. In astructure such as […X… [ s …Y…] …X…] no rules can refer to both X and Y, if S containsa finite verb, unless X is in the COMP position (complementizer) of S. The propositionalisland constraint refers above all to sentences introduced by question words. Compare,for example, What (=X) did she say—(=X in COMP) she saw—(=Y)? with *Philip (=X)is likely that—(=Y) will leave early.constraints, wh-island constraintReferencespropositional logicPropositional logic as an elementary part of formal logic investigates the connection ofsimple (not analyzed) propositions to complex propositions. This connection occursthrough the logical connectives such as and and or. Here it is a matter (in contrast with
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Dictionary of Language andLinguisti
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The dictionary is based on: Hadumod
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PrefaceTwenty-five years ago, when
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cross-references, updating the bibl
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Pertinent publications: Deutsch als
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Professor of Romance Linguistics; U
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Talbot J.Taylor, Ph.D.Professor of
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User instructionsBasic structure of
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List of symbols used in the bookLin
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ε element relation ‘is an elemen
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List of abbreviations in the textAD
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Prep., PPpres.reg.Ssg.st.subj.Vprep
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COLINGCPsyCScCTLDaFDAIDPrDRLAVDSpEL
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MPhMRCDMSSNkuNL&LTNLHNLingNRunOcLPA
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AAbazaNorth-West Caucasianabbreviat
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A-Z 3ablative absoluteSyntactic con
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A-Z 5absolute antonymyGood vs bad,
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A-Z 7ReferencesFujimura, O. (ed.) 1
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A-Z 9Morphological case in nominati
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A-Z 11acoustic analysisGenerally, t
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A-Z 13acrolectTerm introduced by Bi
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A-Z 15the coding of intransitive cl
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A-Z 17(‘x comes before y’); in
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A-Z 19(Merritt 1976:333)Additional
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A-Z 21Referencesadjectiveadjunct [L
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A-Z 23adverbs. In English, there ar
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A-Z 25affiliation [MLat. affiliare
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A-Z 27Referencessound changeAfrican
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A-Z 29underlying ergative system, v
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A-Z 31agnosia [Grk agnōsía ‘ign
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A-Z 33occurs within a sentence or i
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A-Z 35AkanKwaAkkadianOldest atteste
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A-Z 37——1991. Albanian. In J.Gv
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A-Z 39The related language Yurok de
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A-Z 41allegation [Lat. allegare ‘
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A-Z 43and ‹A› can all be viewed
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A-Z 45alpha privativum [Lat. privat
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A-Z 47writingAlseaPenutianAltaicLan
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A-Z 49alveolo-palatallamino-palatal
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A-Z 51American EnglishEnglishAmeric
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A-Z 53ReferencesHartmann, J. 1980.
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A-Z 55analogue communicationTerm co
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A-Z 57BibliographyAnttila, R. and W
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A-Z 59Fox, B.A. 1993. Discourse str
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A-Z 61Referencesfigure of speechAna
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A-Z 63Furthermore, animals cannot c
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A-Z 65Groenendijk, J. and M.Stokhof
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A-Z 67the patient is marked by an o
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A-Z 69A-over-A principleA universal
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A-Z 71Wulfeck, B. et al. 1986. Sent
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A-Z 73apico-dentalSpeech sound clas
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A-Z 75apostrophe [Grk ‘a turning
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A-Z 77applicativeVerbal voice which
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A-Z 79central ( compact vs diffuse)
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A-Z 81Prochazka, T. 1988. Saudi Ara
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A-Z 83arbitrarinessBasic property o
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A-Z 85Arc Pair Grammarrelational gr
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A-Z 87argument positionN.Chomsky’
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A-Z 89GrammarsHübschmann, H. 1897.
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A-Z 91Depending on the manner in wh
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A-Z 93articulator (also articulator
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A-Z 95Johnson-Laird, P. 1988. The c
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A-Z 97In English, most verbs have a
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A-Z 99Referencesphoneticsaspiration
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A-Z 101associationIn psychology, pr
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A-Z 103athematic verbstem vowelATN
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A-Z 105audio-lingual method [Lat. a
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A-Z 107augmented transition network
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A-Z 109AustroasianAustro-AsiaticAus
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A-Z 111Journal of Autism and Develo
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A-Z 113AUXauxiliaryauxiliary [Lat.
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A-Z 115axiomatics of linguisticsBas
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A-Z 117back formationIn word format
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A-Z 119Balto-FinnishFinno-UgricBamb
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A-Z 121ReferencesChomsky, N. 1986.
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A-Z 123ReferencesCarter, R. 1987. I
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A-Z 125are placed close together. (
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A-Z 127Historical grammarJankoŭski
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A-Z 129Chaker, S. 1984. Textes en l
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A-Z 131Meisel, J. (ed.) 1990. Two f
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A-Z 133reference is bound by a prec
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A-Z 135possibilities as to which si
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A-Z 137Black English vernacularBlac
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A-Z 139borrowingAdoption of a lingu
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A-Z 141Referencesconstraints, trans
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A-Z 143Referencesfigure of speechbr
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A-Z 145ReferencesGrimm, J. 1848. Ge
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A-Z 147ReferencesBates, E. et al. 1
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A-Z 149Characteristics: tonal langu
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A-Z 151calculusDeductive system of
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A-Z 153CantoneseChinesecapital vs s
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A-Z 155Koehn, E. and S.Koehn. 1986.
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A-Z 157case grammar (also case theo
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A-Z 159Starosta, S. 1978. The one p
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A-Z 161Referencesfigure of speechCa
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A-Z 163catchword1 A much-used word
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A-Z 165types standing in the closes
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A-Z 167category symbolIn transforma
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A-Z 169c-commandAn abbreviation for
Page 202 and 203:
A-Z 171McCone, K.R. 1992. Relative
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A-Z 173maintained the following: Th
Page 206 and 207:
A-Z 175Referencescategorial grammar
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A-Z 177ReferenceJakobson, R. et al.
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A-Z 179widely spoken language in th
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A-Z 181Referencestransformational g
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A-Z 183class nouncommon nounclassic
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A-Z 185classifierParticle used to c
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A-Z 187derives the cleft sentence f
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A-Z 189Referencesfigure of speechcl
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A-Z 191clusterIn Weinreich’s sema
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A-Z 193co-constituentConstituents w
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A-Z 195——1993b. Duelling langua
Page 228 and 229:
A-Z 197cognitive linguistics (also
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A-Z 199cohesionCohesion refers to t
Page 232 and 233:
A-Z 201ReferencesCoseriu, E. 1967.
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A-Z 203ReferencesBerlin, B., E.A.Be
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A-Z 205common noun (also class noun
Page 238 and 239:
A-Z 207transmission of information
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A-Z 209ReferencesglossematicsCOMP p
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A-Z 211Grimm, J. 1819-37. Deutsche
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Page 246 and 247:
A-Z 215complementary distributionCo
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A-Z 217Chomsky, N. 1970. Remarks on
Page 250 and 251:
A-Z 219componential analysis (also
Page 252 and 253:
A-Z 221Van Eynde, F. 1981. Some def
Page 254 and 255:
A-Z 223occurrence is rule-governed,
Page 256 and 257:
A-Z 225Cohen, R. 1986. Survey of co
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A-Z 227still will not result in the
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A-Z 229conditional implicationimpli
Page 262 and 263:
A-Z 231Conjugational patterns diffe
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A-Z 233connecting vowellinking vowe
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A-Z 235Referencesconnection2 Logica
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A-Z 237consonant [Lat. consonare
Page 270 and 271:
A-Z 239constellation [Lat. constell
Page 272 and 273:
A-Z 241ReferencesSearle, J.R. 1969.
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A-Z 243Referencesmeaningcontent ana
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A-Z 245content planeexpression plan
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A-Z 247contextual implicationimplic
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A-Z 249continuousprogressivecontoid
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A-Z 251source of knowledge of a lea
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A-Z 253ReferencesLewis, D. 1969. Co
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A-Z 255underlying corresponding syn
Page 288 and 289:
A-Z 257BibliographyWiese, B. 1980.
Page 290 and 291:
A-Z 259core vocabularybasic vocabul
Page 292 and 293:
A-Z 261Referencesphonetics, phonolo
Page 294 and 295:
A-Z 263ReferencesCruse, D.A. 1986.
Page 296 and 297:
A-Z 265Hancock, I. 1987. History of
Page 298 and 299:
A-Z 267cross-referenceanaphoraCross
Page 300 and 301:
A-Z 269Ehret, C. 1980. The historic
Page 302 and 303:
A-Z 271DDaco-RumanianRumanianDagest
Page 304 and 305:
A-Z 273dative [Lat. datum ‘given
Page 306 and 307:
A-Z 275dativizationdative shiftdaug
Page 308 and 309:
A-Z 277declarative sentenceSentence
Page 310 and 311:
A-Z 279deep structure (also underly
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A-Z 281deficit theorycode theorydef
Page 314 and 315:
A-Z 283ReferencesChesterman, A. 199
Page 316 and 317:
A-Z 285deglutinationaphesisdegree (
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A-Z 287Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. K
Page 320 and 321:
A-Z 289Referencesword formationdeno
Page 322 and 323:
A-Z 291BibliographyPetöfi, J.S. (e
Page 324 and 325:
A-Z 293Schachter, P. 1980. Daughter
Page 326 and 327:
A-Z 295ReferencesAlsina, A. and S.M
Page 328 and 329:
A-Z 297descriptivityTendency in som
Page 330 and 331:
A-Z 299pronouns. The precise defini
Page 332 and 333:
A-Z 301developmental apraxiaapraxia
Page 334 and 335:
A-Z 303Lahey, M. 1988. Language dis
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A-Z 305diachronyA term introduced b
Page 338 and 339:
A-Z 307dialect [Grk diálektos ‘c
Page 340 and 341:
A-Z 309ReferencesDavis, A.L. 1949.
Page 342 and 343:
A-Z 311dialect as a ‘restricted c
Page 344 and 345:
A-Z 313ReferenceMarkey, T.L. 1976.
Page 346 and 347:
A-Z 315Kremnitz, G. 1987. Diglossie
Page 348 and 349:
A-Z 317Vennemann, T. 1972. Phonetic
Page 350 and 351:
A-Z 319directive1 A speech act whos
Page 352 and 353:
A-Z 321McCarthy, M. and R.Carter. 1
Page 354 and 355:
A-Z 323BibliographyLohmann, P. 1988
Page 356 and 357:
A-Z 325ReferenceSeuren, P.A.M. 1985
Page 358 and 359:
A-Z 327disjunctive feature structur
Page 360 and 361:
A-Z 329dissimilation of aspiratesla
Page 362 and 363:
A-Z 331ReferenceKatz, J.J. and J.A.
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A-Z 333——1964b. Limitations of
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A-Z 335domain extensionA concept de
Page 368 and 369:
A-Z 337double-bind theoryTerm intro
Page 370 and 371:
A-Z 339Characteristics: strongly ag
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A-Z 341DRS (discourse representatio
Page 374 and 375:
A-Z 343ReferencesaspectDutchGermani
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A-Z 345dysfluency (also stammering,
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A-Z 347dysphasia developmental apha
Page 380 and 381:
A-Z 349Referencesinterrogativeechol
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A-Z 351case, case grammar, semantic
Page 384 and 385:
A-Z 353GrammarsBrunner. H. 1967. Ad
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A-Z 355elective mutismmutismelement
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A-Z 357elliptic formIn word formati
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A-Z 359Referencesfigure of speechem
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A-Z 361ReferencesGovernment and Bin
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A-Z 363encoding1 In information the
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A-Z 365ReferencesmodalityEngaPapuan
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A-Z 367Historical grammarsBrunner,
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A-Z 369entailmentimplicationenthyme
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A-Z 371epiphora [Grk epiphorá ‘b
Page 404 and 405:
A-Z 373Equatorial languagesLanguage
Page 406 and 407:
A-Z 375Referenceslevels of adequacy
Page 408 and 409:
A-Z 377ReferencesComrie, B. 1978. E
Page 410 and 411:
A-Z 379BibliographySpillner, B. 199
Page 412 and 413:
A-Z 381EstonianFinno-Ugric language
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A-Z 383ethnolinguistics (also neo-H
Page 416 and 417:
A-Z 385EtruscanAncient language of
Page 418 and 419:
A-Z 387GreekChantraine, P. 1968-80.
Page 420 and 421:
A-Z 389Decsy, G. 1973. Die linguist
Page 422 and 423:
A-Z 391exceptional case marking (ab
Page 424 and 425:
A-Z 393existential causativeeffecte
Page 426 and 427:
A-Z 395experiencercase grammarexper
Page 428 and 429:
A-Z 397expression plane vs content
Page 430 and 431:
A-Z 399ReferenceAsher, N. 1985. The
Page 432 and 433:
A-Z 401extrinsic vs intrinsic order
Page 434 and 435:
A-Z 403ReferenceFillmore, C. 1968.
Page 436 and 437:
A-Z 405ReferencesKuspert, K.C. 1988
Page 438 and 439:
A-Z 407feature complexfeature bundl
Page 440 and 441:
A-Z 409field workMethodological pro
Page 442 and 443:
A-Z 411the for-to filter. In contra
Page 444 and 445:
A-Z 413finite verb form [Lat. finit
Page 446 and 447:
A-Z 415Firthian linguistics (also c
Page 448 and 449:
A-Z 417Referencesmorphologyfluent a
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A-Z 419Foreign Language Across the
Page 452 and 453:
A-Z 421Referencesborrowing, languag
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A-Z 423Language typeAutomata typere
Page 456 and 457:
A-Z 425ReferencesChomsky, N. and G.
Page 458 and 459:
A-Z 427Referencesphoneticsfossiliza
Page 460 and 461:
A-Z 429frame constructionbrace cons
Page 462 and 463:
A-Z 431Fregean principle principle
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A-Z 433Historical dictionariesBloch
Page 466 and 467:
A-Z 435Sino-Tibetan language of Han
Page 468 and 469:
A-Z 437FulaniFulafunction (also map
Page 470 and 471:
A-Z 439functional compositionMechan
Page 472 and 473:
A-Z 441Nuyts, J. et al. (eds) 1990.
Page 474 and 475:
A-Z 443Functional Unification Gramm
Page 476 and 477:
A-Z 445functorlogical connectiveFur
Page 478 and 479:
A-Z 447GGaelic (also Goidelic)Branc
Page 480 and 481:
A-Z 449ReferencesCarlson, L. 1983.
Page 482 and 483:
A-Z 451geminate [Lat. geminata ‘d
Page 484 and 485:
A-Z 453ReferencesBaron, D. 1986. Gr
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A-Z 455rules from other phrase stru
Page 488 and 489:
A-Z 457Referencestransformational g
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A-Z 459generic nouncommon noungener
Page 492 and 493:
A-Z 461genitiveMorphological case f
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A-Z 463speakers), Liechtenstein, an
Page 496 and 497:
A-Z 465Historical dictionariesGoebe
Page 498 and 499:
A-Z 467GermanicMember of the Indo-E
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A-Z 469Germanic law of spirantsThe
Page 502 and 503:
A-Z 471Referenceswritingglide1 semi
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A-Z 473The goal of linguistic analy
Page 506 and 507:
A-Z 475Referencesphoneticsglottal s
Page 508 and 509:
A-Z 477ReferencesBergsland, K. and
Page 510 and 511:
A-Z 479governing categoryA syntacti
Page 512 and 513:
A-Z 481ReferencesgovernmentGPSGGene
Page 514 and 515:
A-Z 483simplicity, completeness, ex
Page 516 and 517:
A-Z 485Heine, B. and U.Claudi. 1986
Page 518 and 519:
A-Z 487Hopper (1988) see grammatica
Page 520 and 521:
A-Z 489graph [Grk gráphein ‘to w
Page 522 and 523:
A-Z 491Grassmann’s law (also diss
Page 524 and 525:
A-Z 493GrecismAn idiom of the Greek
Page 526 and 527:
A-Z 495Etymological dictionariesAnd
Page 528 and 529:
A-Z 497GuaymiChibchan-PaezanGujarat
Page 530 and 531:
A-Z 499HhabitualVerbal aspect which
Page 532 and 533:
A-Z 501ReferencesCardona, G. 1968.
Page 534 and 535:
A-Z 503ReferencePollard, C. 1984. H
Page 536 and 537:
A-Z 505ReferencesBerman, R. 1978. M
Page 538 and 539:
A-Z 507heterography [Grk héteros
Page 540 and 541:
A-Z 509branching; (d) R is asymmetr
Page 542 and 543:
A-Z 511to the Low German dialects,
Page 544 and 545:
A-Z 513HiraganaJapaneseHispano-Celt
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A-Z 515an Indo-European language. H
Page 548 and 549:
A-Z 517that refer to more complex c
Page 550 and 551:
A-Z 519homonymy [Grk ónyma (=ónom
Page 552 and 553:
A-Z 521many languages there are mor
Page 554 and 555:
A-Z 523Kiefer, F. and K.E. Kiss (ed
Page 556 and 557:
A-Z 525hypercharacterizationredunda
Page 558 and 559:
A-Z 527hyperurbanismhypercorrection
Page 560 and 561:
A-Z 529IIberianBasqueIbero-RomanceR
Page 562 and 563:
A-Z 531——1983. Iconic and econo
Page 564 and 565:
A-Z 533idiolect [Grk ídios ‘one
Page 566 and 567:
A-Z 535Completely idiomatized phras
Page 568 and 569:
A-Z 537IjoKwaillative (Lat. illatus
Page 570 and 571:
A-Z 539The elements produced in the
Page 572 and 573:
A-Z 541keep your mouth shut?, where
Page 574 and 575:
A-Z 543aspectimpersonal constructio
Page 576 and 577:
A-Z 545implicational analysis (also
Page 578 and 579:
A-Z 547only and even (Only Philip i
Page 580 and 581:
A-Z 549inclusionLogical relation be
Page 582 and 583:
A-Z 551Incorporation is a widesprea
Page 584 and 585:
A-Z 553Referencesmodalityindirect i
Page 586 and 587:
A-Z 555language of India and Pakist
Page 588 and 589:
A-Z 557Indo-European (abbrev. IE; a
Page 590 and 591:
A-Z 559Gamkrelidze, T. and V.V.Ivan
Page 592 and 593:
A-Z 561Pokorny, J. 1948-59. Indoger
Page 594 and 595:
A-Z 563inference1 Cognitive process
Page 596 and 597:
A-Z 565in the syntactic function of
Page 598 and 599:
A-Z 567ReferencesAnderson, S. 1982.
Page 600 and 601:
A-Z 569investigational agenda of si
Page 602 and 603:
A-Z 571Fanselow, G. 1988. ‘Word s
Page 604 and 605:
A-Z 573ReferenceHoffmann, K. 1967.
Page 606 and 607:
A-Z 575instrumentative (also instru
Page 608 and 609:
A-Z 577ReferencesCarnap, R. 1947. M
Page 610 and 611:
A-Z 579intensional reading attribut
Page 612 and 613:
A-Z 581interdental [Lat. inter ‘b
Page 614 and 615:
A-Z 583Selinker, L. 1972. Interlang
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A-Z 585interludesyllableinternal in
Page 618 and 619:
A-Z 587Referencesprogramming langua
Page 620 and 621:
A-Z 589characteristics: initial pos
Page 622 and 623:
A-Z 591intersection setsetinterview
Page 624 and 625:
A-Z 593intransitivitytransitivityIn
Page 626 and 627:
A-Z 595(approx. 1000 BC (Gāthās)
Page 628 and 629:
A-Z 597Sperber, D. et al. 1981. Iro
Page 630 and 631:
A-Z 599Referenceslinguistic atlasis
Page 632 and 633:
A-Z 601isotopy [Grk ísos tópos
Page 634 and 635:
A-Z 603Etymological dictionariesBat
Page 636 and 637:
A-Z 605ReferencesMønnesland, S. 19
Page 638 and 639:
A-Z 607Clancy, P. 1993. Japanese/Ko
Page 640 and 641:
A-Z 609JeLanguage group in central
Page 642 and 643:
A-Z 611juncture [Lat. iunctura ‘j
Page 644 and 645:
A-Z 613KKabardNorth-West CaucasianK
Page 646 and 647:
A-Z 615KatakanaJapaneseKatharévusa
Page 648 and 649:
A-Z 617erally dying out. The Khoisa
Page 650 and 651:
A-Z 619KinyarwandaBantuKiowaUto-Azt
Page 652 and 653:
A-Z 621phonology, Korean resembles
Page 654 and 655:
A-Z 623LL 1 vs L 2L 1 is used in ap
Page 656 and 657:
A-Z 625LADlanguage acquisition devi
Page 658 and 659:
A-Z 627LandsmålNorwegianlangage [F
Page 660 and 661:
A-Z 629language acquisitionUmbrella
Page 662 and 663:
A-Z 631McWhinney, B. and E.Bates. 1
Page 664 and 665:
A-Z 633language and brainStudy of t
Page 666 and 667:
A-Z 635Rudzka-Ostyn, B. (ed.) 1987.
Page 668 and 669:
A-Z 637ReferencesAitchison, J. 1981
Page 670 and 671:
A-Z 639mental lexicon), processes s
Page 672 and 673:
A-Z 641Nelde. P.-H. (ed.) 1980. Spr
Page 674 and 675:
A-Z 643Blanken, G. et al. 1993. Lin
Page 676 and 677:
A-Z 645Brunner, K. 1942. Altenglisc
Page 678 and 679:
A-Z 647language mixingmixed languag
Page 680 and 681:
A-Z 649Fodor, I. and C.Hagège (eds
Page 682 and 683:
A-Z 651BibliographyGazdar, G. 1987.
Page 684 and 685:
A-Z 653language synthesis [Grk sýn
Page 686 and 687:
A-Z 655JournalLanguage Testing.lang
Page 688 and 689:
A-Z 657langue d’ocFrenchlangue d
Page 690 and 691:
A-Z 659in Hittite, h 2 has been ret
Page 692 and 693:
A-Z 661not mean that only one hemis
Page 694 and 695:
A-Z 663Palmer, R.L. 1954. The Latin
Page 696 and 697:
A-Z 665Soikane-Trapāne, M. 1987. L
Page 698 and 699:
A-Z 667Left and right dislocations
Page 700 and 701:
A-Z 669from a ligature of ‹1› a
Page 702 and 703:
A-Z 671its broader sense, ‘lexeme
Page 704 and 705:
A-Z 673ReferencesChen, M. and W.S.-
Page 706 and 707:
A-Z 675ReferencesBaumgärtner, K. 1
Page 708 and 709:
A-Z 677grammatical function of the
Page 710 and 711:
A-Z 679lexical phonologyApproach in
Page 712 and 713:
A-Z 681well as complex words in the
Page 714 and 715:
A-Z 683Hausmann, F.J., P.Reichmann,
Page 716 and 717:
A-Z 685Stowell, T. and E.Wehrli (ed
Page 718 and 719:
A-Z 687linearity1 The relationship
Page 720 and 721:
A-Z 689ReferencesAllen, H.B. 1973-6
Page 722 and 723:
A-Z 691Wittgenstein, L. 1981. Tract
Page 724 and 725:
A-Z 693the description of competenc
Page 726 and 727:
A-Z 695Matthews, P.H. 1993. Grammat
Page 728 and 729:
A-Z 697linking vowel (also connecti
Page 730 and 731:
A-Z 699Sledd, J. 1986. Permanence a
Page 732 and 733:
A-Z 701BibliographyLietuvos TSR bib
Page 734 and 735:
A-Z 703is interpreted as a speciali
Page 736 and 737:
A-Z 705ReferencesGazdar, G. 1979. P
Page 738 and 739:
A-Z 707languages to natural languag
Page 740 and 741:
A-Z 709LogudoreseSardinianLondon sc
Page 742 and 743:
A-Z 711MMabanNilo-SaharanMacedonian
Page 744 and 745:
A-Z 713Marchuk, Y.M. 1989. Machine-
Page 746 and 747:
A-Z 715Macro-SiouanSiouanmacro spee
Page 748 and 749:
A-Z 717MaipuranArawakan(major) cons
Page 750 and 751:
A-Z 719languages with the Cam-Thai
Page 752 and 753:
A-Z 721ManicheanIranianmanner of ac
Page 754 and 755:
A-Z 723according to Jakobson (1936)
Page 756 and 757:
A-Z 725present one alone, with no h
Page 758 and 759:
A-Z 727mass nounNoun which has no n
Page 760 and 761:
A-Z 729mathematical logicformal log
Page 762 and 763:
A-Z 731maximal projection of the no
Page 764 and 765:
A-Z 733objects, characteristics and
Page 766 and 767:
A-Z 735Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philo
Page 768 and 769:
A-Z 737——1971. Where do sentenc
Page 770 and 771:
A-Z 739react as soon as the relevan
Page 772 and 773:
A-Z 741mention vs use object langua
Page 774 and 775:
A-Z 743metalepsisA rhetorical trope
Page 776 and 777:
A-Z 745Ortony, A. (ed.) 1979. Metap
Page 778 and 779:
A-Z 747metrical phonologyConcept of
Page 780 and 781:
A-Z 749MienMiao-Yaomildly context-s
Page 782 and 783:
A-Z 751ReferencesNorth and Central
Page 784 and 785:
A-Z 753modal logicSpecial form of a
Page 786 and 787:
A-Z 755model1 Generally, a (formal)
Page 788 and 789:
A-Z 757modification [Lat. modificar
Page 790 and 791:
A-Z 759ReferencesBates, E. et al. 1
Page 792 and 793:
A-Z 761ReferencesBinnick, R.I. 1981
Page 794 and 795:
A-Z 763Referencesphonologymonophtho
Page 796 and 797:
A-Z 765ReferencesCann, R. 1992. For
Page 798 and 799:
A-Z 767MordvaFinno-Ugricmorph [Grk
Page 800 and 801:
A-Z 769morphemics1 In the broad sen
Page 802 and 803:
A-Z 771structuralism (cf. above und
Page 804 and 805:
A-Z 773phonemic level) into the con
Page 806 and 807:
A-Z 775motor aphasiaaphasia, Broca
Page 808 and 809:
A-Z 777Harlech-Jones, B. 1991. You
Page 810 and 811:
A-Z 779mutation [Lat. mutatio ‘ch
Page 812 and 813:
A-Z 781NNa-DenéLanguage group in N
Page 814 and 815:
A-Z 783narrative analysis [Lat. nar
Page 816 and 817:
A-Z 785nasalizationnasal harmonyNas
Page 818 and 819:
A-Z 787vocabulary acquisition. The
Page 820 and 821:
A-Z 789natural methoddirect methodn
Page 822 and 823:
A-Z 791‘negation’ refers both t
Page 824 and 825:
A-Z 793K.Verner, A. Leskien, H.Paul
Page 826 and 827:
A-Z 795neologistic paraphasia neolo
Page 828 and 829:
A-Z 797Hecaen, H. and J.Dubois. 196
Page 830 and 831:
A-Z 799ReferenceJespersen, O.P. 193
Page 832 and 833:
A-Z 801NiloticChari-Nile languagesN
Page 834 and 835:
A-Z 803nomen appellativumcommon nou
Page 836 and 837:
A-Z 805ReferencesTimberlake, A. 197
Page 838 and 839:
A-Z 807non-fluent aphasia aphasia,
Page 840 and 841:
A-Z 809non-monotonic reasoninglogic
Page 842 and 843:
A-Z 811JournalJournal of Nonverbal
Page 844 and 845:
A-Z 813ReferencesDumézil, G. 1932.
Page 846 and 847:
A-Z 815notion [Lat. notio ‘concep
Page 848 and 849:
A-Z 817ReferencesAbney, S.P. 1987.
Page 850 and 851:
A-Z 819Referencessyllable3 nucleus
Page 852 and 853:
A-Z 821NuoreseSardinianNynorckNorwe
Page 854 and 855:
A-Z 823Referencessubordinate clause
Page 856 and 857:
A-Z 825Mordes an (gen.) ‘He accus
Page 858 and 859:
A-Z 827ReferencesAlibert, L. 1935.
Page 860 and 861:
A-Z 829off-glideon-glide vs off-gli
Page 862 and 863:
A-Z 831of the Old High German conso
Page 864 and 865:
A-Z 833Old SlavicOld Church SlavicO
Page 866 and 867:
A-Z 835onomasticsScientific investi
Page 868 and 869:
A-Z 837onsetsyllableonset of voicin
Page 870 and 871:
A-Z 839overlooked that in these lin
Page 872 and 873:
A-Z 841considered the smallest unit
Page 874 and 875:
A-Z 843ReferencesAustin, J.L. 1962.
Page 876 and 877:
A-Z 845BibliographyHewes, G.W. 1974
Page 878 and 879:
A-Z 847ReferencesphoneticsOsseteIra
Page 880 and 881:
A-Z 849PPaezChibchan-PaezanPahlaviI
Page 882 and 883:
A-Z 851Referencesarticulation disor
Page 884 and 885:
A-Z 853Bhatia, T. 1988. Panjabi. Lo
Page 886 and 887:
A-Z 855by the stem and all inflecti
Page 888 and 889:
A-Z 857paralanguageparalinguistics,
Page 890 and 891:
A-Z 859assigns forms an unmarked va
Page 892 and 893:
Page 894 and 895:
A-Z 8632 In word formation, obsolet
Page 896 and 897:
A-Z 865lack thereof is the cause fo
Page 898 and 899:
A-Z 867particle [Lat. particula ‘
Page 900 and 901:
A-Z 869Referencesmiddle voice, voic
Page 902 and 903:
A-Z 871PATR-IIPATRpattern drillpatt
Page 904 and 905:
A-Z 873Pennsylvania DutchLanguage v
Page 906 and 907:
A-Z 875BibliographyGolla, V. (to ap
Page 908 and 909:
A-Z 877performative analysisHypothe
Page 910 and 911:
A-Z 879performative verbSemanticall
Page 912 and 913:
A-Z 881PermicFinno-Ugricpermutation
Page 914 and 915:
A-Z 883personMorphological category
Page 916 and 917:
A-Z 885Chase, S. 1954. The power of
Page 918 and 919:
A-Z 887Referencesapplicational-gene
Page 920 and 921:
A-Z 889phoneme1 Since the end of th
Page 922 and 923:
A-Z 891Referencesphonologyphoneme s
Page 924 and 925:
A-Z 893phonetic actIn J.L.Austin’
Page 926 and 927:
A-Z 895phoneticsLinguistic subdisci
Page 928 and 929:
A-Z 897standard pronunciation patte
Page 930 and 931:
A-Z 8991968, among others). Phonolo
Page 932 and 933:
A-Z 901Historical phonologyFisiak,
Page 934 and 935:
A-Z 903phrase structure diagramtree
Page 936 and 937:
A-Z 905phraseologyidiomaticsPhrygia
Page 938 and 939:
A-Z 907BibliographyReinecke, J. et
Page 940 and 941: A-Z 909place of articulation (also
Page 942 and 943: A-Z 911pleonasm [Grk pleonasmós
Page 944 and 945: A-Z 913also plural-only nouns (scis
Page 946 and 947: A-Z 915PolishWest Slavic language w
Page 948 and 949: A-Z 917PolynesianApprox. thirty clo
Page 950 and 951: A-Z 919polysyndetonThe use of more
Page 952 and 953: A-Z 921ReferencesHockett, C.F. 1947
Page 954 and 955: A-Z 923positivedegreepositivismNeog
Page 956 and 957: A-Z 925ReferencesphoneticsPost-Bloo
Page 958 and 959: A-Z 927sentences they are part of (
Page 960 and 961: A-Z 929Phonology’) and supplement
Page 962 and 963: A-Z 931being generalized into compl
Page 964 and 965: A-Z 933C’s turn is more complex i
Page 966 and 967: A-Z 935prepositional object (also o
Page 968 and 969: A-Z 937present perfect perfect 2pre
Page 970 and 971: A-Z 939Murphy, J., A.Rogers, and R.
Page 972 and 973: A-Z 941Referenceshistorical grammar
Page 974 and 975: A-Z 943principle of compositionalit
Page 976 and 977: A-Z 945principle of expressibilityt
Page 978 and 979: A-Z 947Suppes, P. 1972. Probabilist
Page 980 and 981: A-Z 949pro-drop parameterThe parame
Page 982 and 983: A-Z 951anaphora, reference, textual
Page 984 and 985: A-Z 953Grimshaw, Jane. 1990. Argume
Page 986 and 987: A-Z 955ReferencesClocksin, W.F. and
Page 988 and 989: A-Z 957pronominalizationpersonal pr
Page 992 and 993: A-Z 961intensional logic) of an ext
Page 994 and 995: A-Z 963Referencesrhetoricprothesis
Page 996 and 997: A-Z 965newer subdiscipline of commu
Page 998 and 999: A-Z 967——1989. Speaking: from i
Page 1000 and 1001: A-Z 969Redfern, W. 1984. Puns. Oxfo
Page 1002 and 1003: A-Z 971Qq-CelticCelticqualitative a
Page 1004 and 1005: A-Z 973structure, in generative sem
Page 1006 and 1007: A-Z 975Aymara it is supposed to for
Page 1008 and 1009: A-Z 977Rradical [Lat. radix ‘root
Page 1010 and 1011: A-Z 979RajasthaniIndo-Aryanrangefun
Page 1012 and 1013: A-Z 981Referencestransformational g
Page 1014 and 1015: A-Z 983Referencescase grammarrecipi
Page 1016 and 1017: A-Z 985Haas, M.R. 1966. Historical
Page 1018 and 1019: A-Z 987belongs to the car. The only
Page 1020 and 1021: A-Z 989reduplicationDoubling of ini
Page 1022 and 1023: A-Z 991Referencesreferencereferenti
Page 1024 and 1025: A-Z 993Geniusiene, E. 1988. The typ
Page 1026 and 1027: A-Z 995regressive assimilationassim
Page 1028 and 1029: A-Z 997assumption of relational gra
Page 1030 and 1031: A-Z 999relative adjectiveadjectiver
Page 1032 and 1033: A-Z 1001Werth, P. 1985. The concept
Page 1034 and 1035: A-Z 1003resonance chamberTerm taken
Page 1036 and 1037: A-Z 1005towards the top and back of
Page 1038 and 1039: A-Z 1007DictionariesDicziunari Ruma
Page 1040 and 1041:
A-Z 1009argumentation, figure of sp
Page 1042 and 1043:
A-Z 1011risingfalling vs risingrisi
Page 1044 and 1045:
A-Z 1013RomanianRumanianRomanizatio
Page 1046 and 1047:
A-Z 1015transformations include imp
Page 1048 and 1049:
A-Z 1017rule inversionTerm in (gene
Page 1050 and 1051:
A-Z 1019DialectologyAtlasul lingvis
Page 1052 and 1053:
A-Z 1021DictionariesHarrison, W. an
Page 1054 and 1055:
A-Z 1023SalishSalishanSalishanLangu
Page 1056 and 1057:
A-Z 1025SangoAdamawa-UbangiSanskrit
Page 1058 and 1059:
A-Z 1027SantaliMundaSapir-Whorf hyp
Page 1060 and 1061:
A-Z 1029Etymological dictionaryWagn
Page 1062 and 1063:
A-Z 1031schemaGeneralized knowledge
Page 1064 and 1065:
A-Z 1033scopeIn analogy to formal l
Page 1066 and 1067:
A-Z 1035‘parameters’ that are r
Page 1068 and 1069:
A-Z 1037second sound shift Old High
Page 1070 and 1071:
A-Z 1039segmentationElementary anal
Page 1072 and 1073:
A-Z 1041ReferenceNoreen, A. 1923. E
Page 1074 and 1075:
A-Z 1043semantic differentialA proc
Page 1076 and 1077:
A-Z 1045ReferenceFeather, B.W. 1965
Page 1078 and 1079:
A-Z 1047restriction, inherent seman
Page 1080 and 1081:
A-Z 1049ReferencesBarwise, J. and J
Page 1082 and 1083:
A-Z 1051ReferencesBühler, K. 1934.
Page 1084 and 1085:
A-Z 1053comprises the study of othe
Page 1086 and 1087:
A-Z 1055Haarmann, H. 1990. Language
Page 1088 and 1089:
A-Z 1057Characteristics: a series o
Page 1090 and 1091:
A-Z 1059sensory aphasia aphasia, We
Page 1092 and 1093:
A-Z 1061sentence moodGrammatical ca
Page 1094 and 1095:
A-Z 1063sententialProperty of parti
Page 1096 and 1097:
A-Z 1065alternately leads to the ex
Page 1098 and 1099:
A-Z 1067grammaticalized meaning, e.
Page 1100 and 1101:
A-Z 1069For example: the set of tra
Page 1102 and 1103:
A-Z 1071set phraseidiomset theoryBa
Page 1104 and 1105:
A-Z 1073shutteringdysfluencySiamese
Page 1106 and 1107:
A-Z 1075vs signified). In contrast
Page 1108 and 1109:
A-Z 1077Bellugi, U. and D.Newkirk.
Page 1110 and 1111:
A-Z 1079signatumsignifier vs signif
Page 1112 and 1113:
A-Z 1081singletonsetsingularSubcate
Page 1114 and 1115:
A-Z 1083Williamson, J.S. 1984. Stud
Page 1116 and 1117:
A-Z 1085thousand speakers. Old Chur
Page 1118 and 1119:
A-Z 1087the Latin alphabet with num
Page 1120 and 1121:
A-Z 1089sociolect (also social dial
Page 1122 and 1123:
A-Z 1091Black English, English, fem
Page 1124 and 1125:
A-Z 1093in Czech Brünn (town name)
Page 1126 and 1127:
A-Z 10952 In the broader sense, gen
Page 1128 and 1129:
A-Z 1097Referencesphoneticssound im
Page 1130 and 1131:
A-Z 1099sound symbolism (also phone
Page 1132 and 1133:
A-Z 1101Loukotka, Č. 1968. Classif
Page 1134 and 1135:
A-Z 1103BibliographiesBialik Huberm
Page 1136 and 1137:
A-Z 1105specifiermodifierspectral a
Page 1138 and 1139:
A-Z 1107Structure of speech actsto
Page 1140 and 1141:
A-Z 1109Franck, D. 1979. Seven sins
Page 1142 and 1143:
A-Z 1111above all on semantic relat
Page 1144 and 1145:
A-Z 1113speech perceptionspeech rec
Page 1146 and 1147:
A-Z 1115Referencessound changespoke
Page 1148 and 1149:
A-Z 1117ReferencesSapir-Whorf hypot
Page 1150 and 1151:
A-Z 1119statal verbstative vs activ
Page 1152 and 1153:
A-Z 1121steady-state sounds vs tran
Page 1154 and 1155:
A-Z 1123Eikmeyer, H.-J. and H.Riese
Page 1156 and 1157:
A-Z 1125story grammarExpansion of t
Page 1158 and 1159:
A-Z 1127stress1 In the narrow sense
Page 1160 and 1161:
A-Z 1129strict implicationimplicati
Page 1162 and 1163:
A-Z 1131structural analysisIn trans
Page 1164 and 1165:
A-Z 1133signs in the same system. T
Page 1166 and 1167:
A-Z 1135description. The following
Page 1168 and 1169:
A-Z 1137context-sensitive rules. (a
Page 1170 and 1171:
A-Z 1139Keenan, E.L. 1976. Towards
Page 1172 and 1173:
A-Z 1141ReferenceJames, F. 1986. Se
Page 1174 and 1175:
A-Z 1143The use of the term ‘subo
Page 1176 and 1177:
A-Z 1145having the same function in
Page 1178 and 1179:
A-Z 1147distinction is drawn betwee
Page 1180 and 1181:
A-Z 1149superlative [Lat. superlati
Page 1182 and 1183:
A-Z 1151suprasegmental feature (als
Page 1184 and 1185:
A-Z 1153SvanSouth Caucasiansvarabha
Page 1186 and 1187:
A-Z 1155syllabaryGenerally, the (or
Page 1188 and 1189:
A-Z 1157syllepsiszeugmasyllogism [G
Page 1190 and 1191:
A-Z 1159Term used by K.Bühler to d
Page 1192 and 1193:
A-Z 1161syncategorematic wordsynsem
Page 1194 and 1195:
A-Z 1163synecdoche [Grk ‘understa
Page 1196 and 1197:
A-Z 1165operational definition and
Page 1198 and 1199:
A-Z 1167ReferencesAbney, S. 1987. T
Page 1200 and 1201:
A-Z 1169ReferenceLyons, J. 1968. In
Page 1202 and 1203:
A-Z 1171ReferencesSchlegel, A.W. 18
Page 1204 and 1205:
A-Z 1173Ttaboo word [Polynesian tab
Page 1206 and 1207:
A-Z 1175tagmaticsThe investigation
Page 1208 and 1209:
A-Z 1177Takelma-KalapuyanPenutianTa
Page 1210 and 1211:
A-Z 1179Tarskian semantics model-th
Page 1212 and 1213:
A-Z 1181telescoped wordblendtelic v
Page 1214 and 1215:
A-Z 1183perspective of the speaker.
Page 1216 and 1217:
A-Z 1185tensed formfinite verb form
Page 1218 and 1219:
A-Z 1187text [Lat. textus ‘piece
Page 1220 and 1221:
A-Z 1189Referencesdiscourse grammar
Page 1222 and 1223:
A-Z 1191ReferencesBeaugrande, R.A.
Page 1224 and 1225:
A-Z 1193ReferencesSuter, H.-J. 1993
Page 1226 and 1227:
A-Z 1195Characteristics: tonal lang
Page 1228 and 1229:
A-Z 1197characteristics. Although e
Page 1230 and 1231:
A-Z 1199Urdang, L. 1991. Oxford the
Page 1232 and 1233:
A-Z 1201TigreSemiticTigrinyaGe’ez
Page 1234 and 1235:
A-Z 1203BibliographiesSchwentner, E
Page 1236 and 1237:
A-Z 1205Referencesphonetics, tonolo
Page 1238 and 1239:
A-Z 12072 Analysis of utterances ac
Page 1240 and 1241:
A-Z 1209ReferencesCresswell, M.J. 1
Page 1242 and 1243:
Page 1244 and 1245:
A-Z 1213features of the mother tong
Page 1246 and 1247:
A-Z 1215transformational cycleA pri
Page 1248 and 1249:
A-Z 1217——1964b. The logical ba
Page 1250 and 1251:
A-Z 1219BibliographiesDingwall, W.O
Page 1252 and 1253:
A-Z 1221transitional competenceinte
Page 1254 and 1255:
A-Z 1223ReferencesBell, R.T. 1991.
Page 1256 and 1257:
A-Z 1225transparent context opaque
Page 1258 and 1259:
A-Z 1227tree-pruning conventionIn t
Page 1260 and 1261:
A-Z 1229contribution to determining
Page 1262 and 1263:
A-Z 1231Kripke, S. 1975. Outline of
Page 1264 and 1265:
A-Z 1233years. The largest language
Page 1266 and 1267:
A-Z 1235Maynard, D. and S.Clayman.
Page 1268 and 1269:
A-Z 1237of types’ which was modif
Page 1270 and 1271:
A-Z 1239ReferencesGrammarsBilodid,
Page 1272 and 1273:
A-Z 1241transitive verb with its in
Page 1274 and 1275:
A-Z 1243realized form becomes more
Page 1276 and 1277:
A-Z 1245signals the inconsistency.
Page 1278 and 1279:
A-Z 1247unilateral implicationimpli
Page 1280 and 1281:
A-Z 1249universal grammar1 general
Page 1282 and 1283:
A-Z 1251Articulatory change (usuall
Page 1284 and 1285:
A-Z 1253ReferencesComputational Lin
Page 1286 and 1287:
A-Z 1255uvularSpeech sound classifi
Page 1288 and 1289:
A-Z 1257In the older literature bas
Page 1290 and 1291:
A-Z 1259variablevariabilityvariable
Page 1292 and 1293:
A-Z 1261——1988b. Sociolinguisti
Page 1294 and 1295:
A-Z 1263VepsFinno-Ugricverb [Lat. v
Page 1296 and 1297:
A-Z 1265verbal adjectivegerundiveve
Page 1298 and 1299:
A-Z 1267vibrant (also trill)Speech
Page 1300 and 1301:
A-Z 1269vocal cords [Lat. vocalis
Page 1302 and 1303:
A-Z 1271changes, e.g. Everybody lov
Page 1304 and 1305:
A-Z 1273voicing assimilationassimil
Page 1306 and 1307:
A-Z 1275*Occurs as first element in
Page 1308 and 1309:
A-Z 1277vowel gradationablautvowel
Page 1310 and 1311:
A-Z 1279WappoGulf languagesWarlpiri
Page 1312 and 1313:
A-Z 1281principle holds only for ce
Page 1314 and 1315:
A-Z 1283West AtlanticBranch of the
Page 1316 and 1317:
A-Z 1285wh-wordinterrogative pronou
Page 1318 and 1319:
A-Z 1287and morphological levels, e
Page 1320 and 1321:
A-Z 1289formation find their expres
Page 1322 and 1323:
A-Z 1291refers to preferences perta
Page 1324 and 1325:
A-Z 1293word stress stress 2word st
Page 1326 and 1327:
A-Z 1295written language1 Generally
Page 1328 and 1329:
A-Z 1297ReferencesBresnan, J. 1977.
Page 1330 and 1331:
A-Z 1299ReferencesFishman, J.A. 196
Page 1332 and 1333:
A-Z 1301YumanHokanYuorokAlgonquianY
Page 1334 and 1335:
A-Z 1303zeugma [Grk zeũgma ‘bond
show all

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