2003 IMTA Proceedings - International Military Testing Association

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transformational leadership may be most important for maximal performance contexts rather
than for typical performance contexts.
The purpose of this study is to examine these neglected antecedents and consequences of
transformational leadership. We first examine how leader personality, based on the Five-Factor
Model (FFM), relates to subordinate ratings of the leader’s transformational behaviors. Second,
we examine how transformational leadership relates to team performance assessed under typical
and maximum performance contexts. Third, we assess whether transformational leadership fully
or partially mediates the relationship between team performance and the FFM of personality.
Thus, this study contributes to the research on transformational leadership by examining the
FFM determinants of transformational leadership, examining how transformational leadership
predicts team criteria, and whether the strength of prediction differs across typical and maximal
performance contexts. This study therefore integrates and simultaneously tests the findings by
Judge and Bono (2000) and Ployhart et al. (2001) by assessing the FFM determinants and
consequences of transformational leadership. Figure 1 provides an overview of the relationships
examined in this study.
In the following section, we discuss the FFM antecedents of transformational leadership.
Next, we examine the consequences of transformational leadership for team performance in
typical and maximal contexts.
Transformational Leadership and the FFM of Personality
Much progress has been made in the field of leadership research. From the early work on
a one-dimensional model of leadership (Katz, Maccoby, & Morse, 1950), to the two-dimensional
model of initiating structure and consideration (Stogdill & Coons, 1957), to the recent
transformational/charismatic leadership theory (e.g. Bass & Avolio, 1993; Conger & Kanungo,
1988; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993), the field has witnessed significant advances in theory
development and empirical work. Despite the existence of numerous leadership theories and
paradigms, it is safe to say that, for the past two decades, transformational leadership theory has
captured much of the research attention (Judge & Bono, 2000). The concept of transformational
leadership can be traced back to Burns’ (1978) qualitative classification of transactional and
transformational political leaders, although it was the conceptual work by House (1977) and Bass
(1981) that brought the concept of transformational leadership to the forefront of leadership
research. Transformational leadership is often contrasted to transactional leadership.
Transactional leadership is often depicted as contingent reinforcement; leader-subordinate
relationships are based on a series of exchanges or bargains between them (Howell & Avolio,
1993). Transformational leaders, on the other hand, rise above the exchange relationships typical
of transactional leadership by developing, intellectually stimulating, and inspiring subordinates
to transcend their own self-interests for a higher collective purpose, mission, or vision (Howell,
& Avolio, 1993). Notice that one consequence of this perspective is a focus on unit-level
interests, beyond those of the individual person.
Transformational leadership is comprised of four constructs (Bass 1998): Charisma or
idealized influence, Inspirational motivation, Intellectual stimulation, and Individualized
consideration. A leader is charismatic if his/her followers seek to identify with the leader and
emulate him/her. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire their followers by providing
meaning and challenge to their work. Intellectually stimulating leadership aims to expand the
followers’ use of their potential and abilities. Finally, individually-considerate leaders are
attentive to their followers’ needs for achievement and growth. These leaders act not only as
superiors but also as coaches and mentors to their subordinates. In short, transformational leaders
45 th Annual Conference of the International Military Testing Association
Pensacola, Florida, 3-6 November 2003