Evolution__3rd_Edition

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Full Contents xvii
15.11.2 The number of possible trees may be too large for them
all to be analyzed 452
15.11.3 Species in a phylogeny may have diverged too little or
too much 455
15.11.4 Different lineages may evolve at different rates 456
15.11.5 Paralogous genes may be confused with orthologous genes 457
15.11.6 Conclusion: problems in molecular phylogenetics 458
15.12 Paralogous genes can be used to root unrooted trees 459
15.13 Molecular evidence successfully challenged paleontological
evidence in the analysis of human phylogenetic relations 460
15.14 Unrooted trees can be inferred from other kinds of evidence,
such as chromosomal inversions in Hawaiian fruitflies 463
15.15 Conclusion 466
Summary Further reading Study and review questions
16. Classification and Evolution 471
16.1 Biologists classify species into a hierarchy of groups 472
16.2 There are phenetic and phylogenetic principles of classification 472
16.3 There are phenetic, cladistic, and evolutionary schools of
classification 474
16.4 A method is needed to judge the merit of a school of classification 475
16.5 Phenetic classification uses distance measures and cluster statistics 476
16.6 Phylogenetic classification uses inferred phylogenetic relations 479
16.6.1 Hennig’s cladism classifies species by their phylogenetic
branching relations 479
16.6.2 Cladists distinguish monophyletic, paraphyletic, and
polyphyletic groups 481
16.6.3 A knowledge of phylogeny does not simply tell us the rank
levels in Linnaean classification 483
16.7 Evolutionary classification is a synthesis of phenetic and
phylogenetic principles 485
16.8 The principle of divergence explains why phylogeny is hierarchical 487
16.9 Conclusion 489
Summary Further reading Study and review questions
17. Evolutionary Biogeography 492
17.1 Species have defined geographic distributions 493
17.2 Ecological characteristics of a species limit its geographic distribution 496
17.3 Geographic distributions are influenced by dispersal 496
17.4 Geographic distributions are influenced by climate, such as in
the ice ages 497
17.5 Local adaptive radiations occur on island archipelagos 500
17.6 Species of large geographic areas tend to be more closely related to
other local species than to ecologically similar species elsewhere in
the globe 503