Evolution__3rd_Edition

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.. Figure 13.7 Character displacement in North American salamanders. (a) Character displacement can only be studied in two species with partly overlapping ranges, such that in some places both species are present (sympatry) and in other places only one species is present (allopatry). (b) Where only one of the species of Plethodon cinereus or P. hoffmani is found (allopatric populations) the form of the species is similar. Where both species are found together (sympatric populations) they differ more. (c) Measurements were made of the skull form, which is related to diet. Redrawn, by permission of the publisher, from Adams & Rohlf (2000). (b) CHAPTER 13 / Species Concepts and Intraspecific Variation 367 0.28 0.38 0.48 0.58 0.68 Squamosal/dentary ratio (c) Dentary P. cinereus P. cinereus P. hoffmani (allopatric) sympatric P. hoffmani (allopatric) Squamosal the pattern could be caused by differences in resources, for example if the insect prey differed between sites, or it could be caused by chance. Adams & Rohlf (2000) came close to ruling out all the alternatives to competition: they met five of the six criteria in their study of the salamanders P. hoffmani and P. cinereus. These salamanders are about the best example we have of character displacement, and its explanation by ecological competition. 13.7 Some controversial issues exist between the phenetic, biological, and ecological species concepts (a) P. cinereus distribution P. hoffmani distribution We saw in Section 13.2 that the phenetic, ecological and biological species concepts are closely related. Most species probably exist in a phenetic, ecological, and biological
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.. EVOLUTION
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© 2004 by Blackwell Science Ltd a
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vi Brief Contents PART 5. MACROEVOL
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viii Full Contents 3.5 Ring “spec
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x Full Contents 7.2 Rates of molecu
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xii Full Contents 10.5 Genetics of
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xiv Full Contents PART 4. EVOLUTION
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xvi Full Contents 14.12 Identificat
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xviii Full Contents 17.7 Geographic
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xx Full Contents 21.4.3 Ordovician
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Preface The theory of evolution is
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xxiv Preface evolve resistance to d
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.. Introduction Part one When Darwi
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4 PART 1 / Introduction Evolution i
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6 PART 1 / Introduction Examples ex
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8 PART 1 / Introduction Time (a) (b
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10 PART 1 / Introduction . . . look
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12 PART 1 / Introduction Time (a) (
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14 PART 1 / Introduction Figure 1.7
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18 PART 1 / Introduction . . . and
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20 PART 1 / Introduction Further re
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22 PART 1 / Introduction DNA is car
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24 PART 1 / Introduction Most genes
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26 PART 1 / Introduction Table 2.1
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28 PART 1 / Introduction Original D
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30 PART 1 / Introduction (a) Transp
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32 PART 1 / Introduction . . . per
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34 PART 1 / Introduction Dominance
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Figure 2.11 Two populations with 10
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42 PART 1 / Introduction Study and
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44 PART 1 / Introduction Life could
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48 PART 1 / Introduction Tooth qual
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50 PART 1 / Introduction Artificial
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52 PART 1 / Introduction Ring speci
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54 PART 1 / Introduction Human obse
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58 PART 1 / Introduction 5' pG Anti
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62 PART 1 / Introduction (a) α-hem
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64 PART 1 / Introduction Age (Myr a
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66 PART 1 / Introduction The groups
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68 PART 1 / Introduction The scient
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70 PART 1 / Introduction Study and
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Plate 3 Here in the lower row are s
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Plate 6 Scrub jays (Aphelocoma coer
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Plate 8 Chromosomal races of the ho
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Plate 10 Geological map of North Am
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72 PART 1 / Introduction Cod produc
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74 PART 1 / Introduction The strugg
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76 PART 1 / Introduction Many chara
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82 PART 1 / Introduction Chromosome
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86 PART 1 / Introduction The condit
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90 PART 1 / Introduction Summary 1
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.. Evolutionary Genetics Part two T
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.. 5 The Theory of Natural Selectio
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.. Figure 5.1 The general model of
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.. . . . and use Mendel’s rules t
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.. A simpler proof of the Hardy- We
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.. The MN human blood group system
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.. CHAPTER 5 / The Theory of Natura
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.. We need to know more to understa
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.. Figure 5.4 Peppered moths natura
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.. Mark-recapture experiments sugge
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.. Manchester The fitness estimates
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.. Pests, such as mosquitoes, evolv
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.. Figure 5.8 The mortality of mosq
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.. Box 5.2 Resistance Management Th
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.. Other factors will be at work in
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.. . . . which can sometimes be use
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.. Figure 5.9 The global incidence
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.. In host-parasite relations, the
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.. Populations may be subdivided CH
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.. We construct a model of gene fre
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.. We construct a model of selectio
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.. Further reading CHAPTER 5 / The
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.. 6 Random Events in Population Ge
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.. Box 6.1 Random Sampling in Genet
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.. Probability of polymorphism 1.0
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.. Evolution can occur by random dr
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.. Random drift has consequences fo
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.. Generation 1 Generation2 Adults
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.. CHAPTER 6 / Random Events in Pop
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.. Heterozygosity ( H ) 1.0 0.9 0.8
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.. Summary 1 In a small population,
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.. 7 Natural Selection and Random D
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.. Two extreme views b selectionist
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.. The original neutral theory has
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.. . . . and levels of polymorphism
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.. homozygotes by normal Mendelian
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.. Amino acid differences 1.0 0.9 0
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.. Globin evolution in “living fo
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.. Long-generation species, e.g., w
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.. Observed heterozygosity 1.0 0.8
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.. The nearly neutral theory can ex
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.. Insulin illustrates the effect o
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.. CHAPTER 7 / Natural Selection an
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.. Biologists came to accept, throu
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.. Elevated dN/dS ratios are observ
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.. Box 7.4 Model Organisms for Biom
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.. But the test has proved illumina
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.. Evidence shows that synonymous c
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.. The genomic era is allowing new
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.. Summary 1 The neutral theory of
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.. Study and review questions 1 Dra
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.. The tiger swallowtail butterfly
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.. Mimicry requires the correct com
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.. A haplotype is a haploid combina
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.. Linkage disequilibrium ( D) r =
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.. The more complex multilocus mode
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.. Expected frequency ( piqi ) (a)
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.. A model of haplotype frequency c
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.. Evidence for linkage disequilibr
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.. (proportion of polymorphic sites
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.. CHAPTER 8 / Two-locus and Multil
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.. Adaptive topographies can be use
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.. Mean population fitness ( w ) -
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.. p' 0 1 0 Frequency of A allele S
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.. Study and review questions 1 Her
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.. Beak size influences feeding eff
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.. Population size Seed √depth ×
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.. Continuous characters are influe
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.. Genetic and environmental influe
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.. Several non-additive genetic fac
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.. Box 9.1 Some Statistical Terms U
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.. Parent-offspring similarity depe
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.. Frequency Frequency Generation 1
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.. New variation can be introduced
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.. (a) 1976-1977 (b) 1981-1982 (c)
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.. Figure 9.11 (a) The main veins i
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.. Certain non-linear relations can
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.. Behavior Physiology Life history
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.. Some heritable characters do not
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.. Further reading CHAPTER 9 / Quan
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.. Adaptation and Natural Selection
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.. 10Adaptive Explanation T his cha
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.. . . . factually, ... . . . or th
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.. Not all evolution is adaptive CH
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.. Figure 10.2 Stages in the evolut
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.. Some critics suggest that the in
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.. Box 10.1 Molecular Cooption The
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.. Fitness (a) (b) Small mutation L
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.. Figure 10.5 A cross between the
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.. . . . by experiment, ... . . . a
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.. Figure 10.6 The fruits of (a) Cr
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.. Heterozygous advantage may lead
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.. Figure 10.7 Developmental asymme
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.. . . . that can be tested between
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.. Fitness (a) Time 1 (b) Time 2 (c
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.. Fitness Fitness (a) Time 1 (c) T
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.. Imperfect adaptations may or may
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.. The “design” of an eye for s
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.. hypothesis of adaptation or cons
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.. Study and review questions 1 Wha
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.. An adaptation may benefit one le
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.. The sd gene gains an advantage f
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.. CHAPTER 11 / The Units of Select
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.. We define Hamilton’s rule Hami
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.. Kin selection is at work in this
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.. Selfish The theories of group se
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.. Box 11.1 Group Selection for Egg
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.. The unit of selection, in a seco
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.. * * The word “gene” is being
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.. Summary 1 Adaptations evolve by
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.. in Sexual Reproduction 12Adaptat
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.. Figure 12.2 Non-reproductive sex
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.. Figure 12.3 Evolution in (a) ase
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.. Asexual reproduction has a spind
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.. . . . as illustrated by a motor
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.. Log fitness of organisms Number
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.. Figure 12.7 Frequency changes of
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.. Genetic cycles in snails are con
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.. Darwin provided comparative evid
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.. . . . which may explain extreme
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.. Theory requires open-ended choic
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.. But selection may have removed h
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.. Courtship bouts Net reproductive
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.. Theory predicts deviations from
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Page 754: .. Study and review questions 1 Wha
Page 760: 346 PART 4 / Evolution and Diversit
Page 806: .. Polytypic species have diverse p
Page 810: .. (a) (b) (c) Gave de Pau Gave d
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Page 818: .. Biological species are real, not
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Page 826: .. CHAPTER 13 / Species Concepts an
Page 830: .. 14Speciation S peciation means t
Page 834: .. (a) Space (b) (c) Time Geographi
Page 838: .. Figure 14.2 Prezygotic isolation
Page 842: .. Figure 14.3 Song form may be ple
Page 846: .. Could postzygotic isolation evol
Page 850: .. Hybrid fitness is influenced by
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.. Diploid genotype Gene duplicatio
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.. . . . in exceptional conditions
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.. Fitness of hybrid offspring Fitn
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.. Speciation often occurs as a byp
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.. The theory of reinforcement has
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.. Less interbreeding between speci
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.. . . . but also open to alternati
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.. Figure 14.11 Hybrid speciation b
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.. Reinforcement works in sympatry
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.. Most hybrid zones are due to sec
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.. Phylogenetic tests for sympatric
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.. This is a “hot topic” The Od
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.. Biologists are interested in the
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.. Summary 1 The evolution of a new
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.. CHAPTER 14 / Speciation 421 On r
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.. Reconstruction of Phylogeny 15Th
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.. Shared characters are used to in
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.. Figure 15.2 Character conflict i
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.. Figure 15.4 Convergence in marsu
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.. We distinguish ancestral from de
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.. Figure 15.7 Shared characters di
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.. Parsimony underlies outgroup com
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.. Protein and DNA sequences have b
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.. Molecular phylogenetics uses sta
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.. Figure 15.11 Distance methods. (
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.. Percentage difference in DNA of
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.. When two species are very differ
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.. Figure 15.15 The same character
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.. Variable evolutionary rates upse
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.. Ribosomal RNA genes are widely u
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.. The number of possible trees can
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.. . . . as happened in one study o
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.. Evolutionary time Species 1 Orth
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.. The root of a tree ... . . . can
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.. Figure 15.24 The rooted angiospe
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.. The fossil characters were reint
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.. Figure 15.27 Phylogeny of 103 sp
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.. Summary 1 Phylogenies show the a
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.. Study and review questions 1 Her
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.. 16Classification and Evolution B
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.. Phenetic classification is nonev
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.. CHAPTER 16 / Classification and
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.. (a) Phenetic measurements for fi
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.. Distance can be measured in more
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.. Cladism admits only monophyletic
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.. Phylogenetic classification face
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.. Evolutionary classification admi
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.. Classification 1 Classification
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.. Other factors are probably at wo
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.. Study and review questions 1 Mat
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.. Figure 17.1 The natural distribu
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.. Figure 17.2 (a) The six main fau
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.. Dispersal is enabled by various
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.. Many species show similar geneti
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.. Figure 17.4 (b) The three major
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.. Fruitflies and lizards show a co
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.. Plate tectonics causes vicarianc
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.. Time Biogeographic distribution
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.. Figure 17.11 Testing vicariance
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.. (b) Five other vertebrate groups
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.. . . . and South American mammals
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.. CHAPTER 17 / Evolutionary Biogeo
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.. The Great American Interchange i
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.. CHAPTER 17 / Evolutionary Biogeo
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.. Macroevolution Part five Part 5
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.. 18The History of Life T his chap
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.. Geological maps show the locatio
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.. CHAPTER 18 / The History of Life
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.. Time (Myr BP) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.
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.. Figure 18.3 Around 2-3 billion y
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.. . . . partly by symbiosis Atmosp
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536 PART 5 / Macroevolution Protost
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538 PART 5 / Macroevolution Plants
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540 PART 5 / Macroevolution Some ma
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542 PART 5 / Macroevolution The amn
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544 PART 5 / Macroevolution Figure
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546 PART 5 / Macroevolution Changes
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548 PART 5 / Macroevolution Myr ago
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550 PART 5 / Macroevolution Genetic
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554 PART 5 / Macroevolution Further
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19Evolutionary Genomics T he comple
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558 PART 5 / Macroevolution Some hu
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560 PART 5 / Macroevolution Molecul
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562 PART 5 / Macroevolution Superfl
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564 PART 5 / Macroevolution (a) Gen
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568 PART 5 / Macroevolution Transpo
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570 PART 5 / Macroevolution Summary
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Developmental Biology 20Evolutionar
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580 PART 5 / Macroevolution The Hox
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582 PART 5 / Macroevolution The num
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584 PART 5 / Macroevolution Mouse C
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586 PART 5 / Macroevolution A gene
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21Rates of Evolution E volutionary
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592 PART 5 / Macroevolution Time (M
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594 PART 5 / Macroevolution Table 2
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596 PART 5 / Macroevolution . . . a
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598 PART 5 / Macroevolution (a) 5 B
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602 PART 5 / Macroevolution Apparen
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606 PART 5 / Macroevolution Discret
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612 PART 5 / Macroevolution Further
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616 PART 5 / Macroevolution Full ev
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620 PART 5 / Macroevolution . . . o
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622 PART 5 / Macroevolution One stu
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624 PART 5 / Macroevolution Box 22.
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626 PART 5 / Macroevolution Table 2
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628 PART 5 / Macroevolution Nematod
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630 PART 5 / Macroevolution The cop
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634 PART 5 / Macroevolution Carnivo
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638 PART 5 / Macroevolution Number
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640 PART 5 / Macroevolution Coevolu
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642 PART 5 / Macroevolution Study a
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644 PART 5 / Macroevolution Adaptiv
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646 PART 5 / Macroevolution Extinct
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648 PART 5 / Macroevolution . . . b
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Tertiary Lower Danian Cretaceous Up
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652 PART 5 / Macroevolution The ast
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654 PART 5 / Macroevolution 10 6 ye
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656 PART 5 / Macroevolution Extinct
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658 PART 5 / Macroevolution Darwin
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660 PART 5 / Macroevolution (a) Ext
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664 PART 5 / Macroevolution Hansen
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666 PART 5 / Macroevolution Taxa wi
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668 PART 5 / Macroevolution Fossil
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670 PART 5 / Macroevolution One gro
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672 PART 5 / Macroevolution Molecul
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674 PART 5 / Macroevolution Changes
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676 PART 5 / Macroevolution . . . o
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680 PART 5 / Macroevolution (2002),
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Glossary Words in italics cross-ref
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684 Glossary individuals, such as p
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686 Glossary isolating mechanism An
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688 Glossary random drift Synonym o
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Answers to Study and Review Questio
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692 Answers to Study and Review Que
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700 References Arnold, M.L. (1997).
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702 References Briggs, D.E.G. & Cro
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704 References Clarke, C.A., Sheppa
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706 References Dietl, G.P., Alexand
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708 References Flynn, J.J. & Wyss,
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710 References Grant, P.R. & Grant,
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712 References Hey, J. (2001). Gene
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714 References Jeffreys, A.J., Royl
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716 References Kruuk, L.E.B., Meril
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718 References MacFadden, B.J. (199
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720 References Milinkovitch, M.C.,
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722 References Orr, H.A. (1998). Th
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724 References Rice, W.R. (2002). E
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726 References Sequeira, A.S., Lant
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728 References Surlyk, F. & Johanse
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730 References Vrba, E.S. (1993). T
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732 References Wright, S. (1977). E
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734 Index angiosperms (cont.): inse
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736 Index coloration (cont.): prezy
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738 Index evolution (cont.): long-t
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740 Index genetics (cont.): charact
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742 Index immunoglobulins 24 immuno
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744 Index molecular distance 440-2
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746 Index parasites (cont.): genome
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748 Index reproductive development
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750 Index synonymous changes (cont.
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