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The global spread of English 147 3. An example might be the relative positions of English and German in the European Union. German has more native speakers, hence greater prevalence, but English, with a smaller number of native speakers in the language constellation, has greater centrality because it offers more connections with plurilingual speakers of languages other than German or English. 4. Mufwene’s (2002) typology of forms of colonisation is more refined than a dichotomy of settlement and exploitation colonies. He talks, for instance, of trade colonies, whose language contact ecology has been most favourable to the emergence of new language varieties (e.g. pidgins), and of plantation settlement colonies (e.g. Jamaica), where creoles have survived alongside the colonial language. He also stresses, crucially, that the vitality of indigenous languages, even in settlement colonies, has not been uniformly affected by colonisation, and this, he goes on to argue, ‘makes it compelling for linguists to have to investigate and better understand the socio-economic factors that affect language vitality, favouring colonial language in some settings and indigenous ones in others’. (Mufwene 2002: 19) 5. There are, however, some countries (e.g. Nigeria, Cameroon, Papau New Guinea) where English-based pidgins have evolved and are used by relatively large sections of the population. 6. This is one of the reasons underlying Alexander’s proposal (2000) that the Nguni and Sotho cluster of languages be harmonised to establish two strong African languages better equipped materially and demographically to compete with English in South Africa. 7. Finlayson and Madiba (2002: 46) observe that use as an instructional medium both creates a ‘demand for new terms’ and provides opportunities for using them. 8. The Bill of Rights, an integral part of the constitution, gives individual citizens the right to communicate with government departments in the language of their choice, to be tried in court in a language they understand and to receive education in an official language of their choice ‘where that education is reasonably practical’. 9. Tomlinson (1997: 183) cites figures for Los Angeles showing that 40 per cent of the city’s population is composed of Asians and Latinos, and is projected to rise still further. In Leicester the population of Asian descent is projected to rise above 50 per cent in the next thirty to forty years. 10. One thinks here, for example, of the shipbuilding industry, once strong in the North-East of England. 11. I am aware that the concept of native speakerness, which Davies’s (1999b, 2003) work has done much to illuminate, is more complex and problematic than indicated here. However, for economy of presentation I adhere here to conventional understandings of the terms ‘native speaker’ and ‘non-native speaker’. 12. Jenkins (2003: 83) argues, very reasonably, that a more appropriate designation for this category of speakers would be ‘bilingual English speakers’ (see Chapter 6 for a fuller discussion). 13. Woods (2001:79) reports that ‘45.9% of papers in Science and 40.6% of papers in Nature, or an average of 45.6% of RAs [research articles] in these two journals are written by NNSs’. 14. The main focus in this section is on the developing world. 15. When, however, this is pointed out by foreign advisers, and recommendations made to
148 Language Planning and Education curtail the teaching of English, it is not unheard of for these to be rejected, as Davies’s (1996, 1999a) account of his experiences in Nepal in the 1980s illustrates. 16. The term ‘plausibility’ comes from Prabhu (1990), who argues that an appropriate methodology is one that local teachers feel is effective in their context, and one, therefore, that engages what he calls their sense of plausibility.
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