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Educational and political dimensions of bilingual education 69 6. ‘Caste-like minorities’, according to Ogbu (1978), are the most powerless and subordinated of minorities, and frequently stigmatised by the dominant majority population. ‘Immigrant minorities’ (Ogbu 1978) are also subordinate and of low status but tend not to have internalised attributions of inferiority and have, as a result, greater self-confidence. ‘Autonomous minorities’, finally, have a well-developed sense of their cultural identity, and are not considered either by themselves or the dominant majority as a subordinate group. 7. Schmidt’s source here is O’Hare, W. 1992 ‘America’s minorities – The demographics of diversity’. Population Bulletin 47: 4 (December). 8. Again, this data derives from O’Hare, W. 1992. 9. Crawford (1997: 8) notes that in 1991–92, 55 per cent of LEP children attended schools with between 90–100 per cent minority enrolments as compared with 5 per cent of native English speakers. His data is from Bennici and Strang (1995). 10. Waivers to the provisions of Proposition 227 can be granted in some circumstances. 11. However, in view of increased LEP enrolments during the 1990s, Crawford (2002) estimates that this only amounts to only $149 worth of funding per eligible student. 12. According to Crawford (1997: 11), the shortage of qualified bilingual teachers has forced many schools into employing uncertified paraprofessionals whose ‘only qualification in many cases is the ability to speak a language other than English’. 13. Information on the types of educational program provided is drawn from a variety of sources (e.g. August and Hakuta 1997; Rossell and Baker 1996; Thomas and Collier 1997; Faltis 1997). 14. The terms ‘subtractive’ and ‘additive’ bilingualism were first used by Lambert (1975). In subtractive bilingualism, skills in the first language are not consolidated while the second language is being acquired, with the result that they may eventually be lost through language shift. In additive bilingualism, by contrast, second language skills are developed, but not at the expense of the L1. Consequently, fully developed bilingual proficiency emerges. Lambert, and many other writers, associate additive bilingualism with positive cognitive consequences for the individual. 15. Willig (1985) excluded five of the 28 studies in the Baker and De Kanter review because they were carried out outside the United States. 16. Many commentators (e.g. Cummins 1998) regard late exit programs as sounder in theory than early exit TBE because, unlike the latter – which is monolingual in orientation – the former seek to develop, to the fullest extent possible, full literacy skills in the L1 and in the L2. 17. To qualify, studies had to: (1) compare students in a bilingual program to a control group of LEP students of similar ethnicity, (2) randomly assign students to treatment and control groups, or, where this was not possible, match the groups on factors influencing achievement, (3) base outcome measures on normal curve equivalents (NCEs), raw scores or percentiles, and not on grade equivalents, and (4) use appropriate statistical tests to measure differences between groups. 18. To be fair, Rossell and Baker (1996) acknowledge this problem and call for future research to take it into account.
70 Language Planning and Education 19. It is referred to as ‘simplistic’ because, as Gandara (1999: 6) points out, one first needs to distinguish between time exposed to instruction and time actually attending to the instruction. Only the latter influences achievement levels. 20. A ‘deficit’ view is one that locates the educational problems of the minority language pupil in the child and his or her family rather than in the educational system that is supposed to serve them. 21. May (2001: 5) points out, for example, that that nation state ‘liberates individuals from the tyranny of narrow communities’, and offers an equal, common citizenship. 22. Of course, as the Latino population grows, it may acquire increased political influence, and be able therefore to negotiate an enhanced status for Spanish.
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vi Contents 5 The global spread of
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