Reaching the marginalized: EFA global monitoring report, 2010; 2010

010CHAPTER 22Education for All Global Monitoring ReportIn Ethiopiaand Guatemala,children werein class andlearning for onlya third of thetime schoolswere officiallyopen44. This is the percentageof grade 4 pupils inschools where the headstated that the ‘schoolneeds completerebuilding’ or ‘someclassrooms need majorrepairs’.45. In Liberia, thepupil/teacher ratioincreased from 14 to 142between 2006 and 2008.This is due to asubstantial decrease involunteer and otheruntrained teacherspreviously recruited tomeet the teacher demandfollowing the civil crisis(UIS database).Improving learning in schoolsOne of the most important requirements forsustained progress towards better quality ineducation is an improved learning environment,encompassing the physical school infrastructure,the learning process and the interaction betweenchildren and teachers.Low achievement levels are often associatedwith a poor school environment. Badly ventilatedclassrooms, leaking roofs, poor sanitation andlack of materials represent significant barriers toeffective learning in many schools. Over half of ruralprimary students in Peru, the Philippines and SriLanka attend schools viewed by the head teacher asneeding major rehabilitation (UIS, 2008b). 44 A recentsurvey of primary schools in two Nigerian statesfound that over 80% of classrooms in Enugu and50% in Kaduna either did not have a blackboard, orhad one that was barely usable (World Bank, 2008c).Such conditions are common in many countries.The fact that the most marginalized childrenoften attend the poorest-quality schools adds totheir learning disadvantages. Urban-rural dividesfigure prominently in school quality disparities. Inthe Philippines, over 70% of urban grade 4 studentsattended schools with basic facilities such asblackboards and toilets, but only about 50% ofrural students attended schools with thesefacilities (UIS, 2008b). Improving learning in suchenvironments requires redistributing resourcestowards poorer areas.Many studies highlight the positive role ofappropriate textbooks (Boissiere, 2004; Scheerens,2004). A detailed evaluation of Ghana’s basiceducation system found that improvements inmathematics and English test scores from 1988to 2003 had been brought about in part throughincreased availability of textbooks (White, 2004).The longer children spend in school over the courseof a year, the greater their opportunity to masterthe curriculum and achieve learning objectives(Boissiere, 2004). The official number of teachinghours varies considerably by country (Benavot,2004), but time spent on effective learning is whatmatters for achievement. In effective classrooms,about 80% of class time is spent on learning– a benchmark that many schools in developingcountries fail to meet (Abadzi, 2006). Student andteacher absenteeism further reduces learning time.In Nepal, a detailed study of a small number ofprimary schools showed that, while schools wereofficially open for 192 days, the average studentexperienced only 97 days of effective learning(Dowd, 2009). In Ethiopia and Guatemala, childrenwere in class and learning for a third of the timeschools were officially open (DeStefano andElaheebocus, 2009; Dowd, 2009). Better monitoring,improved teacher incentives and targeted supportfor students struggling to attend regularly can allincrease learning time and performance.Increasing the amount of time children spendlearning can be difficult. Chronic overcrowdingof classrooms has led many countries to operatedouble-shift systems in schools. These offerpotential efficiency gains in terms of the number ofchildren covered, but the gains sometimes come ata price. In francophone Africa, double-shift teachinghas sometimes reduced learning achievement,primarily because children spend less time inschool (Michaelowa, 2001). In the longer term,additional classrooms can be built to accommodatea single-shift system. However, policy-makersneed to assess whether building classrooms isas cost-effective in improving learning as otherinvestments, such as providing more teaching andlearning materials. Creating conditions that enablechildren to remain in school, ensuring that teachersactually attend and organizing the school day todevote more time to learning are all low-costoptions with potentially high returns.The important role of teachersTeachers are the single most important educationresource in any country. From early childhoodthrough primary and secondary school, thepresence of a qualified, well-motivated teacheris vital for effective learning. What students achievein school is heavily influenced by classroompractices and teachers’ skills (Aslam and Kingdon,2007). In many countries, shortages of trainedteachers remain a major barrier to achieving theEducation for All goals, especially amongmarginalized groups.Pre-primary education. Early childhood teachersand carers play a crucial role in preparing childrenfor school and supporting their social, emotionaland cognitive development. The quality of care andteaching depends critically on the pupil/teacherratio, teacher training and the creation of an activelearning environment (Schumacher and Hoffmann,2008; UNESCO, 2005). Many countries do not meetminimum standards of quality, however. In Bolivia,India, Liberia, 45 Nepal, Uganda and the United114