Reaching the marginalized: EFA global monitoring report, 2010; 2010

REACHING THE MARGINALIZEDLevelling the playing fieldperformance (Hanushek and Wößmann, 2006).In Germany, early tracking seems to be a factorbehind the country’s large education inequalitiesand particularly the marginalization of Turkishyouth (Crul, 2007). Recognizing the equityimplications of tracking, many European countriesadopted a unified secondary school system in the1960s and 1970s. There is evidence that the moveweakened the link between family backgroundand educational attainment, with associatedbenefits for those who would have been sentto the lower tracks (Brunello and Checchi, 2007).The effects of academic segregation and trackingare widely debated. Evidence from developingcountries is both fragmented and limited. However,there are strong equity grounds for planners inrich and poor countries alike to avoid early trackingand to treat academic selection within schoolswith caution. Both can reinforce exclusion.Targeting financial and pedagogical supportto disadvantaged schoolsOne way of targeting marginalized children is totarget their schools. Targeting criteria can includelocation, ethnolinguistic composition or the shareof poorly performing students, with governmentsusing a range of regulatory instruments andfinancial mechanisms to raise standards. Moreintensive support to teachers and school heads,more specialized pedagogical support to studentsand more per student financing are among theoptions. One targeted programme in Uruguayis credited with improving learning outcomesin the last grade of primary school by combiningfinancial and pedagogical support (Cerdan-Infantes and Vermeersch, 2007; Crouch andWinkler, 2008). 13 In Chile, the 900 SchoolsProgramme provided intensive support to theworst-performing 10% of elementary schoolsby training teachers, gearing courses to studentslagging behind or with behavioural problemsand providing textbooks. Evaluations have shownthat grade 4 test scores improved significantlyfor students in the programme, mainly as a resultof the introduction of more appropriate pedagogicalpractices in the classroom and facilitationof a cooperative environment within schools(García-Huidobro, 2006).Not all school-based targeting has produced suchpositive results. For almost three decades Frenchgovernments have given additional support to Zonesd’Éducation Prioritaire serving disadvantagedstudents. In 2008, around 16% of secondary schoolstudents were in schools with ZEP status. Theseschools have more teachers, so class size is lowerand students receive additional support. In addition,ZEP teachers receive higher pay. Yet severalstudies have found only a limited impact onstudent achievement (Duru-Bellat, 2009). Whyhave ZEP schools not achieved better results?One reason is that the additional resources arespread too thinly over a large number of schools,so class size is reduced by only two students onaverage. Schools have also had trouble attractingexperienced teachers (Moisan, 2001). High teacherturnover makes it difficult to organize strategiesthat could improve achievement (Duru-Bellat,2009). A comparable programme in England(United Kingdom), Excellence in Cities, producedmore positive results, yet it too fell short ofexpectations (Box 3.18).Experience from programmes targetingdisadvantaged schools shows that they can make adifference provided the level of additional financingis sufficient and they are accompanied by incentivesto attract and retain qualified teachers.Learning in an appropriate languageand through a relevant curriculumInclusive education for ethnic and linguisticminorities requires schools that offer a relevantcurriculum in an appropriate language. Sitting ina primary school classroom listening to a teacherproviding instruction in a language they do notunderstand is a short route to marginalization.Bilingual education facilitates learning in a familiarlanguage and equips students with the nationallanguage skills they need to make the transitionto secondary school and, eventually, to employmentand full participation in social and political life(Alidou et al., 2006; Dutcher, 2004; UNESCOBangkok, 2008).Evidence from several countries in sub-SaharanAfrica demonstrates that bilingual education canimprove learning achievement. One example comesfrom the Écoles Bilingues created in Burkina Fasoin the mid-1990s. After five years of instruction inlocal language and French, 85% of pupils in theseschools successfully passed the primary schoolexamination in 2002, compared with a nationalaverage of 62% (Alidou et al., 2006). In Zambia,the successful introduction on a pilot basis of locallanguage teaching in the late 1990s was followedin 2002 by reforms that introduced seven locallanguages into primary school education (Alidouet al., 2006; Linehan, 2004). Ethiopia has goneEvidence fromseveral countriesin sub-SaharanAfricademonstratesthat bilingualeducation canimprove learningachievement13. Learning assessmentswere used to identify weakerschools. Teachers in selectedschools received intensivetraining together withon-going support throughoutthe year and were paid anincentive. The schooltimetable was lengthenedfrom half a day to a full day.199