comparative value priorities of chinese and new zealand

aggressive (Alvesson and Billing, 2009; Parker and Ogilvie, 1996). Females are
typically described as more inclusive, participative, interpersonally and communally
orientated. In contrast, males are typically characterized as more task-oriented,
independent, and dominant (Gibson, 1995; Paris, 2004). Adler and Izraeli (1988)
provided two approaches regarding women in management. The equity approach is
based on assumed similarity between males and females. This approach is more
dominant in the United States since organizations assume that males and females are
similar and so the primary issue is how to attract females into the workplace (Adler,
1994). The equity approach implies that the goal of females is to assimilate into the
male-dominant workplace since organizations expect them to behave like other males.
Thus, “the potential for women to make unique, but equally valuable, contributions to
organizations remained outside the logic of the equity approach and therefore largely
unrealized” (Adler, 1994: 28). The second approach is the complementary contribution
approach. Contrary to the equity approach, the complementary contribution approach
assumes differences between males and females. This approach is more dominant in
Europe and Japan since organizations assume that males and females are different and
the goal is to utilize their “different, but equally valuable, contributions to the
organization” (Adler, 1994: 28). The complementary contribution approach has been
supported by studies such as Gibson (1995). Zame, Hope, and Respress (2008)
conducted surveys among head teachers in Ghana on what they considered to be
effective leadership for head teachers; they found the rankings of effective leadership
characteristics were identical for both males and females. On the other hand, Boohene
(2009) investigated the performance of small retail firms in Ghana and found that male
owners tended to adopt more aggressive strategies than female owners did.
Eagly and Johnson (1990) found male and female leaders did not differ in
Relationship/Consideration vs. Task Orientation in organizational studies. Dobbin and
Platz’ (1986) meta-analysis of 17 studies examining gender differences in leadership
behaviour indicate that male and female leaders exhibited equal amounts of initiating
structure and consideration and have equally satisfied subordinates. Male leaders were
rated as more effective than female leaders only in laboratory settings. A meta-analysis
by Eagly, Karau and Makhijani (1995) of research on the relative effectiveness of
women and men who occupy leadership and managerial roles found that, aggregated
over field and laboratory experimental studies, male and female leaders were equally
effective. Several researchers, such as Sheppard (1992) argued that female managers in
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