comparative value priorities of chinese and new zealand

Studies indicated that the leader behaviours of Consideration and Initiating Structure
were influenced by external contingencies such as the developmental level of
subordinates (Hersey and Blanchard, 1969); differential quality and intimacy of leader
and subordinate relationship (Graen and Cashman, 1975; Graen, 1976; and McMahon,
1976). The postulates proposed by Kerr et al. (1974) are also supported by the
theoretical underpinnings of the Path-Goal Theory (House, 1972).
We see that the evolution of leadership theories has a significant heritage based upon
the two factor theories relating to Consideration and Initiating Structure, developed by
studying the effects of ecological contingency variables on leadership. In this study I
extend the contingency variables to the effects of values and culture on leader behaviour
preferences.
Other Theories Concerning Effects of Culture on Leadership
In the social sciences, culture is most often defined operationally in terms of a set of
cultural value dimensions (see, e.g., Hofstede 1980; House et al., 2004; and Schwartz,
1992, 1994). There is widespread agreement in the literature regarding five features of
the conceptual definition of values: A value is a (1) belief (2) pertaining to desirable end
states or modes of conduct, that (3) transcends specific situations, (4) guides selection or
evaluation of behaviour, people, and events, and (5) is ordered by importance relative to
other values to form a system of value priorities (Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz & Bilsky,
1987, 1990). These are the formal features that distinguish values from such related
concepts as needs and attitudes. “They make it possible to conclude that security and
independence are values, whereas thirst and a preference for blue ties are not” Schwartz,
1994: 20).
Cultural values are important to leadership behaviour because, as Hofstede (1984)
pointed out, “leadership is a compliment to subordinateship” (p. 257), and unless
leaders are able to fulfil subordinates’ expectations of what leadership behaviour ought
to be within the particular cultural context, leaders will not be effective. The tendency of
treating leadership (and other practices and theories) as a culture-independent
characteristic has been labelled by Lawrence (1994) and in most of Hofstede’s writing
as ethnocentrism and managerial universalism, namely the erroneous assumption that
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