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and motivation; for further definitions see, for example, Bass and Avolio (1994). This
distinction of the characteristics and behaviors of leaders is a result of attempts to
separate the two processes and study them independently. They are not independent;
complex organizations without both management and leadership, that is, both
transactional and transformational leadership, are likely to fail, or at least under-perform
relative to their potential. This idea is supported in Avolio (1999: 37), Bass and Avolio
(1993: 69), Bass (1998: 5), Bass (1999: 21), Bass (1985), and Howell and Avolio
(1993). Judge and Piccolo (2004) in a meta-analysis find that transformational and
transactional leadership are so highly inter-related that it is difficult or impossible to
separate any unique effects. The effects of both transformational and transactional
leadership are moderated by societal culture (Hofstede, 1995).
Theoretical Approaches to Leadership Studies: Historical Background
Leadership research and theories of leadership have progressed chronologically through,
1. The search for traits that differentiate leaders from followers, appropriately
called Trait Theories; many traits were investigated, see Stogdill (1948);
Stogdill’s article led to the demise of research concerning only traits, and led to
combining traits with other factors, leading to leadership style theories;
2. And theories focussing on a leader’s style of action, from two approaches,
a. the styles are assumed to be stable characteristic of leaders (Lewin,
Lippitt and White, 1939), and
b. leaders’ styles are not necessarily stable but change in responses to
changes in situations (Stogdill, 1963), leaders change styles according to
the kind of organisation they are leading;
i. more generally, leaders have a repertoire of styles that they
choose in response to context and environment (Fielder, 1964);
ii. leaders adapt their styles in response to the individual
characteristics of their followers (Graen, Linden and Hoel, 1982)
Recent reviews by Aycan (2008) and Dorfman and House (2004) find there are many
categories of theories and typologies of leadership with competent, respected
supporters. My review indicates some of the major ones are listed below and discussed
in the references cited:
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