sectoral economic costs and benefits of ghg mitigation - IPCC

Transport
in the 1990s. Railways, despite being a more energy-efficient mode of transport are now carrying
a decreasing share in both freight and passenger movement. Currently, over 80% of passengers
and 60% of freight are moved by roads. Roads cater to all types of traffic. Long-distance traffic is
served by national highways and state highways, inter- and intra-district traffic by major district
roads, and local traffic by village roads and urban roads. Second, the inadequate public transport
system has led to an increase in the use of personalized mode of transport (like, two-wheelers,
private cars, and non-motorized bi-cycles) particularly in urban areas. Despite the growth in
ownership and utilization of personalized modes, a very large share of commuter travels demand
daily on urban corridors by public buses. However, it is important to note that mere modal share
of vehicles does not reflect the system efficiency that exists with growing traffic in city centres.
For instance, a volume-count traffic survey conducted by TERI at a major intersection in Delhi
(near the major intersection at the Income Tax Office) in late 1999 revealed on an average 77%
of the total commuters daily cross that intersection using buses, with modal share of bus being
only 9%. While only 17% commuters travel by private vehicles (cars and two-wheelers) with
modal share of cars was 30% and that of two-wheelers 35%. Similarly, only 5% people travel by
three-wheelers with its share being 20% and 1% of the total commuter travel by cycles, whose
share is 6% in the total traffic. Such modal share breakup at a major intersection is a very typical
characteristic in large cities of the developing world. This is leading to increasing travel time,
growing congestion and inefficient burning of transportation fuels on city corridors.
With a view to reduce traffic congestion in large size cities of the developing world,
implementation of a mass transit bus system in urban areas is identified to be an important
mitigation option in the short- to medium-run. It is envisaged that a well maintained bus service
will displace passenger transport by cars, two- and three-wheelers. But this would require a
change in industrial policy in the automotive sector. There will have to be an accelerated
production of fuel-efficient buses designed specifically for urban transport and a cut-back on
production of cars and two- and three-wheelers. However, from a long-run point of view, it
would be necessary to go in for rail-road mix under the mass rapid transit system because of the
overriding importance given to it by policymakers from the point of view of reducing congestion
and local pollution effect in urban areas.
Modal split changes can also affect the energy and carbon intensity of goods transport. Typically,
pipelines require the lowest energy input per tonne-km transported followed by water and rail. As
a rule of thumb, low energy intensive transport modes also transport low-value goods.
Behavioural change
An important factor in modal split changes is the behavioural change and is discussed separately
here. Behavioral change not only influences what transport modes are chosen, but also how they
are used or the “usage efficiency”. Usage efficiency comprises many components, ranging from
traffic flow, driving modes and styles, and, most importantly, load factors. For instance, the
average occupancy rates in India are estimated to be below three persons per car; in cities, the
occupancy levels are even lower. This means more energy use and emissions per passenger-km
driven.
Usage efficiency is perhaps the least understood factor that could improve the efficiency of
transportation systems. An improvement in it will involve not only changes in social behaviour
and trip organization (such as car pooling or car sharing), but also in public policy incentives,
such as the provision of special driving (high occupancy vehicle) lanes or toll reductions for car
pools, or parking fees or city entrance fees (introduced in some European and Asian cities).
Technological change
Supply-side technological options for reducing carbon emissions in the transportation sector
include both incremental and radical changes. Incremental changes involve production of fuelefficient
car technologies with advancement of engine design and improved chassis structure,
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