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employment relations and health inequalities: a conceptual and empirical overvieW Occupational injuries Occupational injuries are among the most visible negative effects of poor employment and working conditions. according to the best available worldwide estimates, the number of non-fatal occupational injuries that cause at least three days' absence from work is 264 million per year, more than 700,000 injured workers per day (Hämäläinen, Takala, & leena, 2006). It has been calculated that annually, the global number of fatal injuries is approximately 350,000, meaning that every day, 970 workers die due to their working conditions. Currently, fatal and nonfatal occupational injuries produce about 10.5 million disabilityadjusted life years (Dalys): about 3.5 years of healthy life lost per 1,000 workers every year globally. This is responsible for 8.8 per cent of the global burden of mortality (Concha-Barrientos, nelson, Fingerhut, Driscoll, & leigh, 2005). This enormous burden of disease is unequally distributed by social class, gender, ethnicity, age, and migrant status (see Case studies 34 and 35). Child operating sugar cane press (india). Structural changes from agricultural and industrial to service source: marc schenker (2000) economies, with outsourcing of dangerous industries to poor countries, together with stricter regulation of preventive measures in companies, result in a decrease in occupational injuries in rich regions. nevertheless, in the EU-15 it has been estimated that over 121,000 people die each year due to an occupational injury or by a disease caused by working conditions (IlO, 2005). Conversely, while they are decreasing in wealthy countries, work-related injuries are growing in middle- and <strong>low</strong>-income countries. This picture is particularly worrisome (see Case study 36). Based on occupational injury rates estimated by the World Bank region (Figure 12), the risk of fatal and non-fatal occupational injury in China and India is about two and a half times higher than in the Established Market Economies' region (basically Europe and north america). This difference is five times higher in the case of africa south of the Sahara economic region. rich countries have the <strong>low</strong>est rates. Fatal rates in Sweden and the United Kingdom are 1.9 and 0.8 per 100,000 workers, respectively, while in Mozambique or Kenya the fatality rates are 21.6 per 100.000 workers, similar to that in Bolivia, where the fatality rate is 21.9. These inequalities in occupational health are even more evident when we compare occupational injuries between two pairs of neighbouring countries located in sensitive areas, where economic and social differences are huge, Mexico and the USa, and Spain and Morocco. Occupational injury rates in Mexico (fatal 15.9 and non-fatal 121.3) are roughly three times higher than in the USa (fatal 5.2 and non-fatal 39.6). Even more dramatic differences can be seen between Spain (8.9 and 68.03) and Morocco (47.8 and 364.9), where they are approximately five times higher. These differences may in fact be higher, because underestimation bias is probably more significant in poor countries. 187
EmpLoymEnT, work, And HEALTH inEquALiTiES - a global perspective Figure 12. differences among non-fatal and fatal occupational injuries rates by World bank regions in 1998. Middle Eastern Crescent Latin America and the Caribbean Sub-Saharian Africa Other Asia and Islands China India Formerly Socialist Economies Established Market Economies 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 No-fatal rates per 100,000 workers Middle Eastern Crescent Latin America and the Caribbean Sub-Saharian Africa Other Asia and Islands China India Formerly Socialist Economies Established Market Economies 0 5 10 15 20 25 Fatal rates per 100,000 workers source: hämäläinen, p., takala, J., & leena, K. (2006). global estimates of fatal occupational accidents. Safety Science, 44, 137-156. The related economic costs due to compensation, lost working time, interruption of production, training, and medical expenses are routinely estimated to amount to 4 per cent of annual global GDP, thus representing the enormous figure of some US$1,250 billion in 2001 . It has been calculated that an average of 5 per cent of the workforce is absent from work on any given day, though this may vary from 2-10 per cent depending on the sector, type of work and management culture 188
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EmploymEnt, Work and HEaltH InEqual
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CORE GROUP* Carlos H. Alvarado, Fra
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Policies and Interventions 9 "The k
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policies and interventions Figure 2
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policies and interventions free pro
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policies and interventions employme
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policies and interventions Pública
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policies and interventions referenc
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policies and interventions Table 14
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Epilogue: the economic crisis 10
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Conclusions & recommendations 11 "I
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Appendix
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AppeNdIx recommendation no. 190 and
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AppeNdIx employment conditions. emp
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AppeNdIx Forced labour. Although th
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AppeNdIx Job discrimination. this t
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AppeNdIx in: muntaner, c., Benach,
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AppeNdIx in: Bartley, m., & Ferrie,
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AppeNdIx work intensification. work
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AppeNdIx Bank's Atlas method (adjus
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AppeNdIx table a2. descriptive stat
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AppeNdIx table a3. labour market fa
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AppeNdIx CorE sEmi-pEriphEry pEriph
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AppeNdIx Country clusters table A5
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AppeNdIx semi-peripheral countries
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AppeNdIx Figure a6. Health indicato
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RefeRences RefeRences 1. IntroductI
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arrangements and precariousness in
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International Labour Organization.
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Benach (Eds.), Desigualtats en salu
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Instituto Nacional de Estadística
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desde América Latina y el Caribe.
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Woldehanna, T., Guta, F., & Ferede,
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unemployment Chan, W. S., Yip, P. S
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International Labour Organization.
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Clarke, S., Sloane, D., & Aiken, L.
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among residents in the Trent region
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Sales, E. C., & Santana, V. S. (200
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Parent-Thirion, A., Fernandez, M. E
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Unemployment and mental health: Und
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Tytherleigh, M. Y., Jacobs, P. A.,
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Chilcoat, E. (2008). Pinkie promise
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Africa. Perspective of Global Devel
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freight transport and distribution
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Índex LIST OF FIGURES 2. Fair empl
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Table A5. Country clusters by labou
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Case study 43. Sexual orientation,
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acronyms and abrevIatures AIDS - Ac
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autHors and contrIbutors CORE GROUP
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Maria da Graça Luderitz Hoefel. Ho
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Maria da Graça Luderitz Hoefel. Ho
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INSTITUTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS THAT
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