Employmentweb_low

Fair eMployMent, eMployMent conditions, and social inequality axes
As a group, women suffer more from competitive pressures and
are usually the first to be laid off when labour-intensive
manufacturing jobs move to even lower-wage countries (Fussel,
2000; Joekes, 1995). They often have limited possibilities for skill
acquisition or advancement, and have inadequate security coverage
in terms of old-age pensions, even though their work as carers of
family-members often continues into old age (ILO, 2002; Social
Watch, 2007). In some rapidly industrialising economies or exportprocessing
zones (EPZ), women's share of employment has fallen
and apparently no sustained improvement in labour market status
has been achieved (Berik, 2000; Fontana et al., 1998; Jomo, 2001).
Women tend also to be less organised into unions and women's
multiple and changing roles often have contributed to more conflicts
in the domestic sphere as well as at work (Kolk, Bekker, & Van Vliet,
1999; WHO, 2006).
Age. Age represents an important axis for any analysis of the
health effects of employment conditions, particularly in the context
of the labour market changes described in this book. For example,
the resilience of child labour in poor countries and its re-emergence
within wealthy countries poses a serious challenge to health, due
not only to the physical and psychological burden it places (with
strong historical parallels), but also its impact on educational and
other opportunities. Children and young workers also constitute a
significant proportion of various forms of slave or bonded labour in
Asia, and the same applies to workers in the informal sector (such
as street vendors and scavengers) in South America and Africa.
There is also a critical age bifurcation in the labour market within
the formal sector (see for example Louie et al., 2006). Young workers
(i.e. those under 25 years of age) make up a disproportionate share
of those holding temporary jobs and this has continued to match
growth in these types of employment.
At the other end, older workers (those of 55 years or more) are
disproportionately represented amongst some categories of selfemployment,
although older workers are also increasingly found in
temporary jobs. Age bifurcation in terms of precarious employment
means that both young and older workers are disproportionately
exposed to the additional health risks associated with these
employment arrangements (and the more limited avenues for
articulating their concerns).
Ethnicity. The concept of ethnicity is multidimensional, as it
includes diverse social constructs such as origin or ancestry,
identity, language and religion. It also includes social activities such
as the arts, norms, beliefs, and even practices such as dressing and
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