Archie to SAM: A Short Operational History of Ground-Based Air ...

OPERATIONS BETWEEN VIETNAM AND THE PERSIAN GULF
flares—but to little effect. The American flyers encountered intense
defenses, more than expected, and Soviet SA-7 and SA-9
missiles modified to counter the decoy flares. The Syrians
launched 40–50 SAMs, which downed one A-7 and one A-6
and damaged another A-7. While the Navy blamed the losses
on changes in Soviet missile sensors, the Israelis criticized
American planning, tactics, and experience. Later Syrian fire
against US aircraft was met by ship bombardment. 24
This less-than-satisfactory experience jarred the Americans
and probably influenced the next US air operation, the April
1986 raid on Libya. One factor driving American planning was
to avoid the SA-7s, which meant operating at night. There were,
of course, other reasons for night operations, such as achieving
maximum surprise, avoiding a major engagement with Libyan
air defenses, avoiding casualties to both Soviet advisers and
Libyan civilians, and revealing as little American ECM as possible.
However, night operations also meant that only two
American aircraft could be effectively used: the Air Force’s FB-
111 and the Navy’s A-6. While the A-6s were aboard carriers
cruising in the Mediterranean, the FB-111 bombers were stationed
in Britain, a round-trip of 5,600 miles (a 14-hour flight).
The FB-111s would require numerous aerial refueling because
of the distance and air space overflight restrictions. 25
US Airmen launched a large strike force of 32 bombers (18
FB-111s and 14 A-6s) supported by almost 70 aircraft. The
mammoth supporting force was required because Libyan air
defenses were both large and sophisticated for a third world
country. Besides MiGs, the defenses consisted of 100 batteries
of SA-2s, SA-3s, and SA-6s (about 30 to 60 batteries were
operational), as well as SA-5, SA-8, SA-9, and French Crotale
missiles, and perhaps 450 AAA guns. 26
American aircraft successfully penetrated Libyan defenses,
suppressing and evading fire from Libyan SAMs and AAA and
encountering no aerial opposition. Airmen used low-level and
high-speed tactics—the FB-111s at 400 feet and 500 knots, the
A-6s as low as 200 feet and 450 knots—to deliver both laserguided
and iron bombs. One FB-111 went down, the cause was
not publicly known. Although the Libyans received 30 to 45
minutes’ notice from Maltese air controllers that unidentified
158