A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE ...

Elements which do not relate some segment with some prior segment would not be
included as discourse markers by Fraser. Therefore, expressions such as frankly,
obviously, and stupidly are not counted as discourse markers, since they do not signal a
two-place relationship between the adjacent discourse segments. Rather, they are
commentary pragmatic markers as they “signal a comment, a separate message, that
relates to the following segment” (Fraser 1999:942). Excluded also are focus particles
such as even, only, just, pause markers such as hum, well, oh, ahh, modal particles such
as indeed, vocatives such as sir, Mr. President, anyone?, as well as interjections such as
Oh!, wow!, and shucks!
Other stipulations that Fraser has for discourse markers is that “when an expression
functions as a discourse marker, that is its exclusive function in the sentence” (Fraser
1990:389). He explains that while discourse markers may have “homophonous” forms
(one form analyzable as an adverb, and one as a discourse marker) they do “not serve in
both roles in the same sentence” (Fraser 1990:389). In regards to positional distribution,
Fraser characterizes discourse markers as typically occurring only in utterance-initial
position, but notes that there are also occasions where they are utterance-internal and
utterance-final, such as with the marker however. Finally, Fraser considers discourse
markers to have a core meaning distinct from the meanings of their homophones, noting
that discourse markers are not drawn from a single grammatical source, but drawn from a
variety of grammatical sources, including: adverbials (now, then, still); literally used
phrases (to repeat, what I mean to say, similarly, overall), idiomatic phrases (while I have
you, still and all), verbs (look, see), interjections (well), coordinating conjunctions (and,
or, but), subordinate conjunctions (so, however), as well as the terms such as anyway and
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