Atheism and Theism JJ Haldane - Common Sense Atheism
Atheism and Theism JJ Haldane - Common Sense Atheism
Atheism and Theism JJ Haldane - Common Sense Atheism
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<strong>Atheism</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Theism</strong> 87<br />
‘Mary is happy because she is contented’; ‘the figure is trilateral because it is<br />
triangular’; ‘the villain was cruel because of his selfishness’; ‘the rules were<br />
breached, the audience was offended, the baby cried <strong>and</strong> the alarm went off<br />
all because he started shouting’, <strong>and</strong> so on.<br />
In some sense(s) these various claims are causal ones; certainly one can<br />
reformulate them using the word ‘cause’ rather than ‘because’. But it is a matter<br />
of enduring philosophical controversy how they should be understood; <strong>and</strong><br />
this difficulty is not resolved by insisting, as many contemporary philosophers<br />
do, that there is only one kind of causation, namely efficient causation, the<br />
paradigm of which is one object colliding with another <strong>and</strong> starting it in<br />
motion. Whatever else might be said it is obvious that the number 6 is not<br />
even because it can literally be sliced in half by the number 2, <strong>and</strong> however his<br />
shouting caused the rules to be breached it was not, as with the setting off of<br />
the alarm, by setting up motions of air molecules that then impacted a surface.<br />
Uncertainty about the nature <strong>and</strong> varieties of causation is bound to affect<br />
(itself another type of causing!) interpretations <strong>and</strong> assessments of causal<br />
arguments, particularly if these involve more than one kind of cause. It is in<br />
part for this reason that I entered the qualification about our ability to make<br />
conclusive assessments of non-ontological proofs of theism. In particular<br />
the design arguments that I am interested in here, posit an extra-natural<br />
cause from somewhat different perspectives, <strong>and</strong> the nature of these viewpoints<br />
bears upon the sense of the causal claim involved. The arguments in<br />
question are from functional natures, from enabling pre-conditions <strong>and</strong> sustaining<br />
conditions, <strong>and</strong> from intellectual underst<strong>and</strong>ing. The first two are discussed<br />
by Smart.<br />
Most forms of scientific enquiry are non-microscopic. Most of what people<br />
study in university <strong>and</strong> pursue in non-academic fields <strong>and</strong> laboratory research<br />
concerns categories of phenomena above the level of physics. Such studies<br />
are generally concerned with dynamic systems. These enquiries are certainly<br />
mindful of the fact that the entities in question are composed out of matter<br />
but the focus of their interest is organization, in particular functional organization.<br />
They want to know what has happened, is happening or will happen<br />
<strong>and</strong> what the active <strong>and</strong> passive powers of the various ‘elements’ are. For<br />
example, environmental studies may combine astronomical, meteorological,<br />
botanical <strong>and</strong> various other sciences in the effort to underst<strong>and</strong> the development<br />
of a system. In doing this it uses a series of taxonomical <strong>and</strong> explanatory<br />
schemes in which reference to natures <strong>and</strong> functions is extensive. It would<br />
be a mistake to suppose that such branches of scientific study could purge<br />
themselves of these sorts of notions, since they <strong>and</strong> the observational <strong>and</strong> theoretical<br />
methods that go with them are constitutive of these very forms of<br />
enquiry. Botany can no more dispense with notions of structure, function <strong>and</strong><br />
growth than cricket can purge itself of the ideas of innings, runs <strong>and</strong> wickets.