Atheism and Theism JJ Haldane - Common Sense Atheism
Atheism and Theism JJ Haldane - Common Sense Atheism
Atheism and Theism JJ Haldane - Common Sense Atheism
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<strong>Atheism</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Theism</strong> 65<br />
Two other weak responses are the following. (1) God has a reason for<br />
allowing evil but we do not know what it is. Well, we know that God does<br />
not have a reason for allowing round squares because the notion of a round<br />
square is an inconsistent one. So if this answer is to work it must depend on<br />
one of the other defences. (2) It may be said that evil can enhance goodness,<br />
just as ugly chords can enhance a piece of music. I doubt whether the mother<br />
of the child dying of cancer would be impressed by this idea. A closely related<br />
idea, on which I touched when discussing Pascal’s Wager, is that if the<br />
universe contains an infinite amount of goodness then a finite amount of<br />
badness leaves us with still an equal infinity of goodness.<br />
Let a be the total amount of badness in the world, <strong>and</strong> let there be an<br />
infinite series of good things, b + b + b + .... Then it may be held that<br />
−a + b + b + b + ... = b + b + b + . . . . In Cantor’s set theory the union of a<br />
finite set with an infinite set has the same transfinite number as the infinite set.<br />
The set that contains all the stars in our galaxy together with all the integers<br />
is no bigger than the set of all the integers itself. So if (rather absurdly) we<br />
were to assign a value v to each star <strong>and</strong> also to each integer, the value of<br />
the set containing both the stars <strong>and</strong> the integers would be no greater than<br />
that of the set containing only the integers. (There would be other curiosities,<br />
such as that the value of all the even integers would be equal to the value of<br />
all the even <strong>and</strong> odd integers.) I conclude that analogies inspired by Cantorian<br />
set theory are unhelpful, even if not positively absurd. We should say that<br />
the value of the universe containing positive evils is less than that of the<br />
infinitely good universe containing no positive evils. So God would perhaps<br />
have allowed the b + b + b + . . . universe but would not have allowed<br />
the −a + b + b + b + . . . universe. He would not have allowed the universe<br />
with the child dying of cancer.<br />
This consideration that even an infinitely good universe should contain no<br />
positive evils within it enables me to deal with another, <strong>and</strong> more interesting,<br />
defence of theism. 106 This is that it is unfair to ask of even an omnipotent<br />
God that he should create the best possible universe, since of any universe we<br />
can conceive of a better. This might lead us to some interesting speculations<br />
related to the theory of transfinite cardinal numbers, but let us for the sake of<br />
argument concede the point. If it is logically impossible that any universe is<br />
the best possible, then indeed even omnipotence could not create such a<br />
universe. Nevertheless, surely we would expect an omnipotent <strong>and</strong> benevolent<br />
God to have created a universe without positive evils.<br />
Contemplating evil, I feel the attractions of a philosophy, such as<br />
that of the bdvaita Vedanta, according to which reality is very different<br />
from what it seems or what we could possibly know, <strong>and</strong> that the world as we<br />
think we know it, including both good things <strong>and</strong> bad things, is illusory.<br />
However, such a philosophy cannot be stated without absurdity. Though