turkish phonology and morphology (türkçe ses ve b‹ç‹mb‹lg‹s‹)

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138 Turkish Phonology and Morphology (Türkçe Ses ve Biçim Bilgisi) Grammatical Criteria Considerable use is also made of the, so called, grammatical criteria in classifying words. Morphological properties coupled with distributional properties of words provide a clearer demonstration of class membership. Morphological properties concern the morphological structure of words, i.e. the inflectional and derivational morphemes that they can take. For example, words that take the same derivational morpheme are classified as belonging to the same word class. -lIk is productively used to create nouns in Turkish. This indicates that boflluk and yokluk given above belong to the category noun as well as fedakarl›k, sahtekarl›k, uzunluk. Similarly, words that take the same inflectional suffixes are considered to belong to the same word class. For example, the inflectional categories that signal nounhood are number and case. So, words that can carry this information are said to have prototypical characteristics for nounhood. Examine the following. (2) a. çocuk-lar b. çocuk-ta c. *kadar-lar d. *kadar-da kedi-ler kedi-de *yürü-ler *yürü-de çay-lar çay-da *h›zl›ca-lar *h›zl›ca-da The (2a) and (2b) examples can take number and case marking respectively, whereas the same combination is not permissible with the (2c) and (2d) examples. Therefore, words in (2a) and (2b) belong to the same class, but not the words in (2b) and (2c). Inflectional morphemes are useful in word classification, but they can only be used with words that undergo inflection. The distributional criteria, however, has a wider range of application. It concerns syntactic positions of words and the syntactic functions associated with them 1 . By this criteria, we can explain how a word like kimse is categorized as a pronoun: it can be used in the same position as a noun is used, and pronouns replace nouns by definition. (3) yoktu a. ‹lknur, e. yavaflça b. çocuk f. oku c. yokluk g. flflflt d. kimseler h. diye The words given in (3a, b, c, d) can be used in the given syntactic slot in (3) before the verb gelmedi to function as the subject, but not the ones in (3e, f, g, h). This means that the first group of examples belong to the same word class. This was to show you how semantic and grammatical tests can be used to identify at least the most prototypical members of a word class. They may also enable us to make generalizations about the deviations from the prototype, and thus discover the subclasses of each word class. WORD CLASSES As has been amply demonstrated in the EFL classrooms, word knowledge makes a considerable contribution to linguistic performance. Most second language learners find it difficult to communicate in the target language not because they
Unit 8 - Word Classes lack grammatical mastery, but merely because there is a discrepancy between their thoughts and the means with which they express these thoughts. Words are considered to be the bodies of the thought, and a lack of word knowledge results in a lack of expression of thought. Even in using their native language, most speakers experience times of being speechless. This indicates a difficulty in choosing the right words to express what we mean in the way that we mean it. Words have the power to create the intended impression on the receiver. However, not all words have the same semantic and syntactic/functional importance. Open Classes vs Closed Classes It is assumed that all languages make a distinction between open and closed partsof-speech classes. This distinction is made based on the difference between words in their semantic and functional importance. The open classes (also known as content words) include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; the closed classes include the rest: pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, and interjections (also known as function words). The communicative value of content words is much higher because they are meaningful. Therefore, they are considered to be lexical items. Closed class words, on the other hand, do not contribute to the meaning of a sentence, but determine the syntax of it. In other words, the meaning of these words can only be explained by referring to the relationship they establish between the members of a sentence. So, we can say that open classes are more important semantically, but closed classes are so functionally. Aitchison suggested an analogy which equates open classes with bricks as building materials of a sentence, and closed classes with mortar as relating sentence items to one another (Aitchison, 2003: 102). Open classes have unlimited membership. That is, they have a very large number of members. The closed classes, however, have relatively few members. It is possible to make a quick list of, say, the pronouns or conjunctions used in a language, but it might be a daunting job to make a list of all the nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs used in that language. The reason why open classes are called so is that they are open to new membership. Whenever languages are in need of new words to label the emerging concepts, they create or borrow words falling into this category. But it is less likely, though not impossible, to add new members to the closed classes, for example novel postpositions, or conjunctions, or pronouns. There are also inflectional differences between the two classes. Members of open classes undergo various grammatical inflections, so they have variable forms: uyu, uyur, uyuyor, uyuyacak, uyumal›. Closed classes, except It is your for turn! the pronouns, have invarient forms since they do not take up any grammatical inflections. 1 1 a. Pick out from the following list those words that belong to a closed It is your class: turn! sen, yesen, It is your turn! geçen, içten, benden, hem, hemen. 2 2 b. Give a part-of-speech classification of the words in the following: Dostluk hakk›nda sohbetler pek hofla gidiyordu. It is your turn! It is your turn! 3 3 139 It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn! 4 4 It is your turn! It is your turn! 5 5 It is your turn! It is your turn! 6 6
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T.C. ANADOLU ÜN‹VERS‹TES‹ YA
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Contents Why Study Sounds?.........
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Grammatical Categories ............
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Kitapla ilgili olarak eminim hepini
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Why Study Sounds? INTRODUCTION Lang
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[s] /s/ [z] [´z] The differences i
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• Speaker-based description • A
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Summary It is through the use of la
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“ Turkish Alive Examine the follo
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Key to “It is your turn!” It is
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Turkish Consonants INTRODUCTION Why
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Unit 2 - Turkish Consonants The dif
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Unit 2 - Turkish Consonants Places
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Unit 2 - Turkish Consonants produce
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s h l tS R d Unit 2 - Turkish Conso
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The necessary condition for /n/ bec
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Summary The production of consonant
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Turkish Alive Transcribe the conson
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3TURKISH PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY (
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34 Turkish Phonology and Morphology
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It is your turn! It is your turn! 1
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38 Figure 3.4 English Vowels Turkis
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42 Summary Turkish Phonology and Mo
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44 Turkish Alive Turkish Phonology
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4TURKISH PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY (
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56 Self-test Turkish Phonology and
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Morphology: The Wordland INTRODUCTI
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When you compare the syllable and m
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Unit 5 - Morphology: The Wordland a
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white arrow. This takes us to the n
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(6) a. kitap b. kitap-l›k c. kita
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The Morpheme Marking Definite Past
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Self-test 1. Which one of the follo
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Adal›, O. (1979). Türkiye Türk
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Evidently, the morpheme /-AlA/ has
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Word-Formation Processes INTRODUCTI
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derived stem denominal nominal deve
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falan), haber maber (haber falan),
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It is your turn! Though relatively
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Page 97 and 98: Summary In this chapter we have loo
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Page 103 and 104: Grammatical Categories INTRODUCTION
Page 105 and 106: Non-Plural Functions of -lAr Unit 7
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Page 127 and 128: of appropriate adverbials: Sak›n
Page 129 and 130: Restrictions on Impersonal Passives
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Page 166 and 167: 160 References & Bibliography Turki
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Page 170 and 171: 164 Unit 5 Turkish Phonology and Mo
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turkish phonology and morphology (türkçe ses ve b‹ç‹mb‹lg‹s‹)

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