Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI

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eFerences Anderson, J. M., Streitlien, K., Barret, D. S. & Triantafyllou, M. S. (1998). Oscillating foils of high propulsive efficiency. J Fluid Mech, 360, 41-72. Arellano, R., Moreno, F. J., Martinez, M. & Ona, A. (1996). A device for quantitative measurement of starting time in swimming. Biomechanics and Medicine in swimming VII. E & FN Spon, London, 195-200. Drenk, V., Hildebrand, F., Kindler, M. & Kliche, D. (1999). A 3D video technique for analysis of swimming in a flume. Scientific Proceeding of the XVII International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sport, Perth, Australia, 361-364. Elipot, M., Hellard, P., Taiar, R., Boissière, E., Rey, J. L., Lecat, S. & Houel, N. (2009). Analysis of swimmers velocity during the underwater gliding motion following grab start. J Biomech, 42, 1367-1370. Fonton, N. H. & Palm, R. (1998). Comparaison empirique de methods de prediction en regression lineaire multiple. Rev Stat Appliqué, XLVI(3), 53-64. Holthe, M. J. & Mc Lean, S. P. (2001). Kinematic comparison of grab and track starts in swimming. Biomechanics Symposia, 31-34. Issurin, V. B. & Verbitsky, O. (2002). Track start versus Grab Start: Evidence of the Sydney Olympic Games. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming IX, University of Saint Etienne, France, 213-218. Gavilan, A., Arellano, R. & Sanders, R. (2006). Underwater undulatory swimming: study of frequency, amplitude and phase characteristics of the ‘body wave’. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming X, Portuguese Journal of Sport Sciences, 35-37. Kwon, Y. H. & Casebolt, J. B. (2006). Effects of light refraction on accuracy of camera calibration and reconstruction in underwater motion analysis. Sports Biomechanics, 5(1), 95-120. Loebbecke, A. V., Mittal, R., Fish, F. & Mark, R. (2009). A comparaison of kinematics of dolphin kick in human and cetacean. Hum Mov Sci, 99-112. Lyttle, A. D., Blanksby, B. A., Elliot, B. C. & Lloyd, D. G. (2000). Bet forces during tethered simulation of underwater streamlined gliding and kicking techniques of freestyle turn. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 801-807. Mason, B. & Cossor, J. (2000). What we can learn from competition analysis at 1999 pan Pacific Swimming Championships. In proceedings of XVIII Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, HongKong, 75-82. Marinho, D. A., Reis, V. M., Alves, F. B., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Machado, L., Silva, J., et al. (2009). Hydrodynamic drag during gliding in swimming. Journal of applied Biomechanics, 25, 253-257. Miller, M. K., Allen, D. & Pein, R. (2002). A kinematic and kinetic comparison of the grab and the track starts in swimming. Biomechanics and medicine in Swimming IX, University of de Saint-Etienne, France, 231-234. Read, D. A., Hover, F. S. & Triantafyllou, M. S. (2003). Forces on ocsillating foils for propulsion and maneuvering. Journal of Fluids and Structures, 17, 163-183. Rouboa, A., Silva, A., Leal, L., Rocha, J. & Alves, F. (2006). The effect of swimmer’s hand/forearm acceleration on propulsive forces using computational fluid dynamics. Journal of Biomechanics, 39, 1239-1248. Vilas-Boas, J. P., Cruz, M. J., Sousa, F., Conceiçao, F., Fernandes, R. & Carvalho, J. (2003). Biomechanical analysis of ventral swimming starts: comparison of the grab start with two track start techniques. Biomechanics and medicine in Swimming IX. University of de Saint- Etienne, France, 249-252. Winter, D. A. (2000). Biomechanics and motor control of human movement. Human Kinetics, New York: A. Wiley-Interscience Publication, Second Edition. chaPter2.Biomechanics AcKnoWledGeMents The authors wish to thank the “Ministère de la Jeunesse, des Sports et de la Vie Associative” and the “Fédération Française de Natation” for financing this study. The authors also wish to thank Frédéric Frontier, Frédéric Clerc, Isabelle Amaudry and the “INSEP” for logistic support, and Jean-Lyonel Rey, Stéphane Lecat, Eric Boissière and Yves Thomassin for their contributions. 99
BiomechanicsandmedicineinswimmingXi Comparison of Front Crawl Swimming Drag between Elite and Non-Elite Swimmers Using Pressure Measurement and Motion Analysis Ichikawa, h. 1 , Miwa, t. 1 , takeda, t. 2 , takagi, h. 2 , tsubakimoto, s. 2 1 Japan Institute of Sports Sciences, Tokyo, Japan 2 University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan The purpose of the study was to suggest a methodology to quantify the drag force during front crawl swimming and to compare the drag force between elite and non-elite swimmers. Subjects were asked to swim front crawl using arms only in swimming flume, which set the velocity to 1.3 m/s. The pressure distribution on the swimmer’s hands and the orientation of the swimmer’s hands were measured to calculate the propulsive force. The position of the umbilicus was recorded using high speed camera with 250 fps to calculate the swimming acceleration. The drag force was estimated according to the equation of motion “ma = Fp + Fd” along with swimming direction. The elite swimmer swam efficiently with lower drag force (averaging at 21N) compared to the non-elite swimmer (average 50N). Our methodology would be useful to compare the dynamics and to discuss the performance of swimming. Key words: drag force, propulsive force, inertial term, dynamics, front crawl swimming IntroductIon The dynamics of swimming is expressed as a mass model, ma + F 100 = Fgra + Fsta dyn (1) where m and a are a swimmer’s mass and acceleration vector of the swimmer’s whole body. F gra is downward force vector due to gravity, F sta is upward hydrostatic force vector that is called buoyancy, and F dyn is unsteady hydrodynamic force that Namashima (2006) was modelling as tangential and normal resistive fluid force, which are proportional to the local flow velocity, and inertial force due to added mass, which is proportional to the local flow acceleration. The component on the swimming direction of Equation 1 was expressed as, ma + = Fdyn− swim = Fp Fd (2) where a and F dyn-swim are the component along with swimming direction of a and F dyn , respectively. The F dyn-swim is separated into forward force F p , which is propulsive force, and backward force F d , which is drag force. Many researchers have suggested some methodologies to quantify the drag force in swimming as “active drag”, although it is difficult to quantify the drag force in swimming (Di Prampero et al. 1974, Clarys et al. 1974, Hollander et al. 1986, Kolmogorov et al.1992). The methodologies have some assumptions, such as “swimming velocity is constant” (Di Prampero et al. 1974, Hollander et al. 1986), “propulsive and drag force are in balance” (Clarys et al. 1974, Kolmogorov et al. 1992). Almost all previous researches expressed the drag force as a single value, which was a mean value during some strokes. The drag force is, however, changing from moment to moment during swimming, so the assumptions and the expression of drag force would make us overlook some information of swimming dynamics. It is important to observe the dynamics of the propulsive and drag forces during swimming quantitatively and continuously, because it would lead to better discussion of the swimming technique and performance. In the present study, the drag force, which is changing during front crawl swimming, was quantified with a methodology that is according to the equation of motion (Eq.2) to discuss the dynamics of front crawl during swimming quantitatively and continuously, because it wo discussion of the swimming technique and performance. In the present study, the drag force, which is changing d swimming, was quantified with a methodology that is according motion (Eq.2) to discuss the dynamics of front crawl swimming. T study were to suggest a methodology to quantify the drag force d swimming. The purposes of the study were to suggest a methodology to swimming, and to compare the drag force between an elite (a com quantify the drag force during front crawl swimming, and to compare and a non-elite (a triathlete) swimmer. the drag force between an elite (a competitive swimmer) and a non-elite (a triathlete) swimmer. METHODS METHODS The subjects were a well-trained male competitive swimmer and a m The profile subjects of were the a well-trained subjects is male shown competitive in Table swimmer 1. The and subjects a male were asked triathlete. crawl The using profile arms of the only subjects in a swimming is shown in Table flume, 1. The which subjects was set the flow were m/s. asked In to the swim experiment, the front crawl the pressure using arms distribution only in a swimming on swimmer's hands flume, the which hands was and set the position flowing velocity of the at umbilicus 1.3 m/s. In the were experiment, measured during the the pressure distribution on swimmer’s hands, the orientation of the hands Table and 1. the Characteristics position of the umbilicus of the were subjects. measured during the trial. Bes Table Subject 1. Characteristics of the Height subjects. [m] Weight [kg] Age [yrs] 100 Best record for Subject Competitive Height [m] Weight [kg] Age [yrs] 1.79 74.0 100m-Fr. 22.4 [sec] 49.6 swimmer Competitive swimmer 1.79 74.0 22.4 49.6 Triathlete 1.70 1.70 68.0 68.0 22.7 82.022.7 82.0 Twelve small pressure sensors, 6 mm diameter and 0.7 mm thick, (PS- 05KC, Kyowa, Twelve Japan) small were pressure attached on sensors, the swimmer’s 6 mm both diameter hands. The and 0.7 mm attaching Kyowa, positions Japan) were were the palmar attached and dorsal on the sides swimmer's at the metacarpo- both hands. The a phalangeal were the (MP) palmar II joint, and the middle dorsal point sides of at MP the III metacarpophalangeal and IV joints, and (MP) I MP point V joint of (Fig. MP 1). III The and pressure IV joints, values were and recorded MP V at joint 500Hz (Fig. to 1). The pre calculate recorded the hydrodynamic at 500Hz to force calculate Fhand exerted the hydrodynamic on the swimmer’s hands force Fhand exerted using hands the following using the equation, following equation, 3 hand ∑ i= 1 ( p − p ) F = A w Eq.3 , , hand i palm i dorsum i where where A Ahand was the plane area of the hand. The index i indicates a po hand was the plane area of the hand. The index i indicates a position pressure to attach sensor, the pressure that sensor, is i = that 1 is is MP i = 1 II is joint, MP II 2 joint, is the 2 is midpoint the of MP II midpoint 3 is MP of MP V joint. III and The IV joints ppalm and and 3 is pdorsum MP V joint. were The the ppalm measured and pressure pdorsum dorsal were sides the measured of the hand, pressure respectively. on the palmar The and dorsal wi is the sides weight of of divide the sensor’s hand, respectively. position, The and wi is it the was weight defined of divided as w1 area = w3 on = the 0.25 each and w2 = 0.5 in sensor’s And position, it was and assumed it was defined that as the w1 direction = w3 = 0.25 of and the w2 = hydrodynamic 0.5 in forc the perpendicular present study. And to it plane was assumed of the that hand. the direction of the hydrodynamic force on a hand was perpendicular to plane of the hand. Figure 1. A photograph of a pressure sensor (top) and the positions to be attached the pressure sensors on the palmar and dorsal sides of a left hand (bottom). The sensors were also attached on the right hand of the swimmer in a similar position as the illustration.
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average VO2 measured during resting
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Figure 2. Repeatability of the LTin
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Pahlen Norge AS Pahlen Norge AS Cha
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