Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI

More documents

Recommendations

Info

ysed, in a wind tunnel, five different configurations of the hand considering their hydrodynamic behaviour. It was found that a cupped hand is better than a flat one, but with straight and closed fingers. Medical and rehabilitation topics were not so abundant in BMS X, but did include very relevant issues like muscular imbalance (Becker et al.), injury incidence (Haupenthal et al.) and the incidence, consequences and strategies facing the detection of Auxiliary Arch of Langer (Clarys et al.). Susceptibility to peroxidation of red blood cells in swimmers (Monteiro et al.), effects of exercise on the cross-sectional area of the vena cava (Onodera et al.), and immunological responses to swim training (Teixeira et al.) were also included, as well as nutrition (Soultanakis et al.; Toubekis et al.) and supplementation (Shiraki and Nomura) analysis. conclusIons And Future PersPectIVes Following recent trends, future developments in Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming probably will lie upon the development of numerical methods and simulations, both for internal (muscular and intersegmental) and external (hydrodynamic) biomechanics, as CFD already allows. 3D moving models will be included in the simulation studies with capabilities to respect biomechanical redundancy. Detailed and sophisticated experimental approaches will also progress, like the PIV approaches already included in the series in the last issue. These approaches (combining modeling and experimentation) will allow a deeper understanding of P and D mechanisms, including consistent analysis of added mass inertial effects, and possible propulsive repercussions of eventual axial flow over the propulsive segments. Optical fibre and other in-bedded miniaturized sensors, together with nanotechnology contributions will prevail and provide revolutionary contributions for future scientists. It is possible that ambulatory kinematics will prevail over image/external light based kinematical processing systems. Special garments, made of intelligent textile fabrics will allow both biomechanical and physiologic evaluation and feedback, including in real-time. It is possible that this type of material will allow new developments in the swimwear industry, allowing “exoskeletons” to be circumstantially created during immersion, based on textiles with memory of shape. Training and testing in anaerobic bio-energetic zones will concentrate more research efforts, probably of inter-disciplinary nature. In fact, it is possible to preview that those inter-disciplinary studies, combining the physiological, biomechanical, and psycho-cognitive domains, will provide paramount information for the progress of knowledge in aquatic sports and activities. Also an increase will be seen in the exchange of methodology and instrumentation between various activity areas and more activity areas will be represented. There may be a shift in emphasis between scientific domains and activities with continued growth of areas previously less well represented. This is in fact, recommended. reFerences: Chatard J. C. (ed.) (2003). Swimming Science IX. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming IX. Publications de l’Université de Saint- Étienne, Saint-Étienne. Clarys J.P., Lewillie L. (eds.) (1975). Swimming II. University Park Press, Baltimore. Hollander A. P., Huijing P. A., de Groot, G. (eds.) (1983). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming. Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Illinois. Keskinen K., Komi P., Hollander (eds A. P.) (1999). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII. Dep. of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä. Lewillie L., Clarys J.P. (eds.) (1971). Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biomechanics in Swimming, Waterpolo and Diving. Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles. MacLaren D., Reilly T., Lees A. (eds.) (1992). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Swimming Science VI. E & FN Spon, London. Terauds J., Bedingfield E. W. (eds.) (1979). Swimming III. University chaPter1.invitedLectures Park Press, Baltimore. Troup J. P., Hollander A. P., Strasse D., Trappe S. W., Cappaert J. M., Trappe T. A. (eds.) (1996). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VII. E & FN Spon, London. Ungerechts B. E., Wilke K., Reischle K. (eds.) (1988). Swimming Science V. Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Illinois. Vilas-Boas J. P., Alves F., Marques A. (eds.) (2006). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming X. Portuguese Journal of Sport Sciences, Suppl 2. AcKnoWledGeMents Part of this study was supported by grant: PTDC/DES/101224/2008 19
BiomechanicsandmedicineinswimmingXi Applying a Developmental Perspective to Aquatics and Swimming langendorfer, s.J. Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA Most typically in the aquatic field instructors and coaches employ an “error correction model” to view all swimming behaviours. Using a “straw person” approach, clinicians expect all learners regardless of age or skill to swim like an elite adult swimmer. In this approach errors are corrected mainly when external experts such as teachers or coaches expunge those errors using command style direct teaching. In command teaching, a coach verbally describes and then demonstrates the expected “expert” way of swimming followed by identifying the “errors” the learner makes that deviate from the expert model. In contrast, a “developmental perspective” is defined as a view in which one expects and anticipates regular, ordered changes to occur in swimming behaviours across the entire lifespan. From a developmental perspective, changes in swimming behaviour occur as a result of systemic interactions among individual, task, and environmental characteristics as proposed by Newell (1986). For example, this view expects that someone learning to swim on the front gradually and systematically will change the arm, leg, and breathing patterns they use to move through the water because their body size or density changes, or the way they interact with the task is altered. In this paper I provide a conceptual overview that compares and contrasts the developmental and error correction approaches in swimming by drawing upon contemporary thinking in dynamical systems and motor development theory. In particular, I highlight the three essential clinical skills that aquatic clinicians need to possess when using “developmentally appropriate practices” (DAP) (i.e., developmental assessment, individualization of instruction, and developmental task analysis). For each DAP clinical skill, I provide practical illustrations for how these DAP skills apply to learning in aquatics and swimming. I argue that the predominance of the error correction model within swimming and aquatics has severely limited the field’s acceptance and use of best instructional, learning, and assessment practices as well as unnecessarily constrained thinking about swimming skill acquisition in ways that acceptance of a developmental perspective would remedy. Keywords: swimming skill acquisition, developmental perspective, developmentally appropriate practices, developmental task analysis IntroductIon Virtually all authors and practitioners in the aquatics field approach the acquisition of skill from what is known as an “error correction model.” From this ubiquitous “error model,” practitioners view swimming skills from an “all or nothing” perspective in which they expect a single “correct” way of performing each aquatic skill. Regardless of a swimmer’s age, skill level, or ability, or the task goal and environment, instructors presume the “right way” to perform any aquatic skill is to match the way a hypothetical elite adult swimmer would perform it. Because of the presumption under the error model that there is a single right way to perform a skill, the aquatic skill acquisition process becomes one of expunging errors. Expunging errors mainly creates a negative, or “glass-half-full,” approach especially for young, inexperienced, or differently-abled learners. The primary view is that these individuals are wrong in how they are trying to swim. Even if they make a single change, they are still not swimming the “correct” way which can be quite frustrating for a young or inexperienced learner. The error model also tends to engender a single direct pedagogical approach, often called “command style,” or “tell-show-do,” teaching (Mossten, 1966). This paper proposes that an alternative way of viewing skill acquisition known as the developmental perspective provides a number of advantages 20 Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI /Chapter 1 Invited Lectures Page 22 presume the “right way” to perform any aquatic skill is to match the way a hypothetical elite adult swimmer would perform it. Because of the presumption under the error model that there is a single right way to perform a skill, the aquatic skill acquisition process becomes one of expunging errors. Expunging errors mainly creates a negative, or “glass-half-full,” approach especially for young, inexperienced, or differently-abled learners. The primary view is to that both these practitioners individuals are wrong and learners. in how they Under are trying the to swim. developmental Even if they make perspective a practitioners single change, presume they are still that not all swimming voluntary the “correct” motor skills way which including can be swimming quite frustrating for a young or inexperienced learner. The error model also tends to skills engender change a single gradually direct pedagogical over time approach, as a result often called of a “command number style,” of complex or “tellinteractionsshow-do,” among teaching individual (Mossten, 1966). learners, tasks being learned, and the environ- This paper proposes that an alternative way of viewing skill acquisition known as mental the developmental context. As perspective a more provides positive a number and hopeful of advantages means to both of practitioners promoting skill acquisition, and learners. the Under developmental the developmental perspective understands practitioners presume that motor that all skills voluntary motor skills including swimming skills change gradually over time as a may result take of a on number a variety of complex of coordination interactions among patterns. individual These learners, different tasks being patterns learned, and the environmental context. As a more positive and hopeful means of are acquired in a regular, but gradual, sequence of changes. Developmen- promoting skill acquisition, the developmental perspective understands that motor tally, skills the may different take on a patterns variety of coordination are not viewed patterns. as These right different or wrong, patterns or are correct acquired in a regular, but gradual, sequence of changes. Developmentally, the different vs. patterns incorrect, are not but viewed only as right as less or wrong, or more or correct developmentally vs. incorrect, but advanced only as less or along a developmental more developmentally continuum advanced as along illustrated a developmental in Figure continuum 1. as illustrated in Figure 1. Less developmentally advanced More developmentally advanced Figure 1. Figure 1. In facilitating learning, the developmental perspective encourages practitioners to use a much more diverse set of learner-centered teaching and learning approaches instead of just the direct command style implied by the error model. For example, instructors may use indirect teaching-learning approaches such as movement exploration, guided discovery, or task setting (Mossten, 1966). The developmental perspective also provides the opportunity for more diagnostic and prescriptive formative assessment to individualize their teaching (Langendorfer & Bruya, 1995). In facilitating learning, the developmental perspective encourages practitioners to use a much more diverse set of learner-centered teaching and learning approaches instead of just the direct command style implied by the error model. For example, instructors may use indirect teachinglearning approaches such as movement exploration, guided discovery, or task setting (Mossten, 1966). The developmental perspective also provides the opportunity for more diagnostic and prescriptive formative assessment to individualize their teaching (Langendorfer & Bruya, 1995). METHOD I argue in this paper for the wider adoption of the developmental perspective over the error correction model in the teaching and coaching of swimming, water safety, and aquatic skills. My argument is not based upon a single empirical study, but draws upon a variety of existing developmental studies and expository articles, both terrestrial and aquatic, that contrast with the observed weaknesses of the error model. I also propose applying several unique developmental approaches to the aquatic field as a means for expanding the repertoire or tool box skills of aquatic practitioners. The first unique element that has not previously been applied to aquatics is Newell’s (1986) constraints model. The constraints model draws upon contemporary Method I argue in this paper for the wider adoption of the developmental perspective over the error correction model in the teaching and coaching of swimming, water safety, and aquatic skills. My argument is not based upon a single empirical study, but draws upon a variety of existing developmental studies and expository articles, both terrestrial and aquatic, that contrast with the observed weaknesses of the error model. I also propose applying several unique developmental approaches to the aquatic field as a means for expanding the repertoire or tool box skills of aquatic practitioners. The first unique element that has not previously been applied to aquatics is Newell’s (1986) constraints model. The constraints model draws upon contemporary dynamical systems theory. Newell (1986) uses a triangle as a simple metaphor to portray how swimming coor- Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI /Chapter 1 Invited Lectures Page 23 dination patterns may vary according to relationships, called constraints, among an individual, the task goal, and environmental context (see Figure dynamical 2). For example, systems theory. as an individual Newell (1986) swimmer uses a grows triangle or gets as a stronger, simple metaphor the to way portray she how swims swimming a front crawl coordination (or freestyle) patterns stroke may vary gradually according changes to relationships, the arm called pull, constraints, leg kick, among or body an position individual, because the task her goal, size and and environmental fitness enable context (see Figure 2). For example, as an individual swimmer grows or gets stronger, the way she her to interact within the water environment differently than when she swims a front crawl (or freestyle) stroke gradually changes the arm pull, leg kick, or was body smaller position and because less fit. her Similarly, size and the fitness constraints enable her model to interact proposes within that the if water an environment instructor alters differently characteristics than when of she the was front smaller crawl stroke and less (e.g., fit. how Similarly, far, the how constraints fast; added model buoyancy), proposes that the if crawl an instructor pattern alters also characteristics may change. Teaching of the front crawl stroke (e.g., how far, how fast; added buoyancy), the crawl pattern also may change. can Teaching influence can the influence swimming the swimming skill not skill because not because the swimmer the swimmer does what does what a a teacher demonstrates or instructs, or instructs, but because but because the instructor the instructor manipulates manipu- the task goal lates (e.g., the speed, task stroke goal (e.g., length) speed, or stroke characteristics length) of or the characteristics environment of (e.g., the water temperature, depth). environment (e.g., water temperature, depth). Individual Developmental level of movement Task Environment Figure 2. A second unique element to apply to aquatics is a concept called developmentally A appropriate second unique practices, element also known to apply as to DAP aquatics (Bredekamp, is a concept 1987). called I propose de- for our velopmentally purposes that appropriate we modify practices, this concept also and known call as it DAAP, DAP (Bredekamp, or developmentally appropriate aquatic practices, to emphasize how we can apply this early childhood educational concept to the teaching-learning of aquatics across the lifespan. Roberton (1993) proposed that we should define DAP as the process of identifying where an individual falls along a lifespan developmental continuum and matching tasks to the needs and readiness of each individual. In order to accomplish Roberton’s definition of DAP, she suggests that practitioners need to acquire three distinct developmental skills. Practitioners need 1) to possess developmental assessment skills by using developmental sequences, 2) to appreciate how to individualize instruction,
Page 1 and 2: Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimmi
Page 3 and 4: Bibliographic information: Biomecha
Page 5 and 6: Biomechanicsandmedicinein
Page 19: Biomechanicsandmedicinein
Page 71 and 72:
Biomechanicsandmedicinein
Page 73 and 74:
Page 75 and 76:
Page 77 and 78:
Page 79 and 80:
Page 81 and 82:
Figure 1. General biomechanical par
Page 83 and 84:
Page 85 and 86:
Page 87 and 88:
Page 89 and 90:
Page 91 and 92:
Page 93 and 94:
Page 95 and 96:
Page 97 and 98:
Page 99 and 100:
Page 101 and 102:
Page 103 and 104:
Page 105 and 106:
Page 107 and 108:
Page 109 and 110:
Page 111 and 112:
Page 113 and 114:
Page 115 and 116:
Page 117 and 118:
Page 119 and 120:
Page 121 and 122:
Page 123 and 124:
Page 125 and 126:
Page 127 and 128:
Page 129 and 130:
Page 131 and 132:
Page 133 and 134:
Page 135 and 136:
Page 137 and 138:
Page 139 and 140:
Page 141 and 142:
Page 143 and 144:
Page 145 and 146:
Page 147 and 148:
Page 149 and 150:
Page 151 and 152:
Page 153 and 154:
Page 155 and 156:
Page 157 and 158:
Page 159 and 160:
Page 161 and 162:
Page 163 and 164:
Page 165 and 166:
Page 167 and 168:
Page 169 and 170:
Page 171 and 172:
Page 173 and 174:
Page 175 and 176:
Page 177 and 178:
Page 179 and 180:
Page 181 and 182:
Page 183 and 184:
Page 185 and 186:
Page 187 and 188:
Page 189 and 190:
Page 191 and 192:
Page 193 and 194:
Page 195 and 196:
Page 197 and 198:
Page 199 and 200:
Page 201 and 202:
Page 203 and 204:
Page 205 and 206:
Page 207 and 208:
Page 209 and 210:
Page 211 and 212:
Page 213 and 214:
Page 215 and 216:
Page 217 and 218:
average VO2 measured during resting
Page 219 and 220:
Page 221 and 222:
Fourteen highly trained male swimme
Page 223 and 224:
Page 225 and 226:
Page 227 and 228:
Page 229 and 230:
Page 231 and 232:
Page 233 and 234:
Page 235 and 236:
Page 237 and 238:
Page 239 and 240:
Page 241 and 242:
Page 243 and 244:
Page 245 and 246:
Page 247 and 248:
Page 249 and 250:
Page 251 and 252:
Page 253 and 254:
Page 255 and 256:
Page 257 and 258:
Page 259 and 260:
Page 261 and 262:
Page 263 and 264:
Page 265 and 266:
Page 267 and 268:
Figure 2. Repeatability of the LTin
Page 269 and 270:
Page 271 and 272:
Page 273 and 274:
Page 275 and 276:
Page 277 and 278:
Page 279 and 280:
Page 281 and 282:
Page 283 and 284:
Page 285 and 286:
Page 287 and 288:
Page 289 and 290:
Page 291 and 292:
Page 293 and 294:
Page 295 and 296:
Page 297 and 298:
Page 299 and 300:
-ARM * 5 Biomechanicsandmedic
Page 301 and 302:
Page 303 and 304:
Page 305 and 306:
Page 307 and 308:
Page 309 and 310:
Page 311 and 312:
Page 313 and 314:
Page 315 and 316:
Page 317 and 318:
Page 319 and 320:
• Without restriction; • Blinde
Page 321 and 322:
Page 323 and 324:
Page 325 and 326:
Page 327 and 328:
Page 329 and 330:
Page 331 and 332:
Page 333 and 334:
Page 335 and 336:
Page 337 and 338:
Page 339 and 340:
Page 341 and 342:
Page 343 and 344:
Page 345 and 346:
Page 347 and 348:
Page 349 and 350:
Page 351 and 352:
Page 353 and 354:
Page 355 and 356:
Page 357 and 358:
Page 359 and 360:
etween experimental groups and cont
Page 361 and 362:
Page 363 and 364:
Page 365 and 366:
Page 367 and 368:
Page 369 and 370:
Page 371 and 372:
Page 373 and 374:
Page 375 and 376:
Page 377 and 378:
Page 379 and 380:
Page 381 and 382:
Page 383 and 384:
Page 385 and 386:
Page 387 and 388:
Page 389 and 390:
Page 391:
Pahlen Norge AS Pahlen Norge AS Cha
show all

Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?