Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI

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for this paper is a combination of operational experience from the East Africa region and field material derived from a safety at sea project initiated by the Lake Victoria Basin Commission. It is therefore based upon participatory observations, interviews, and in regard to the legislative background, a review of relevant rules and regulations. Case studies are presented of a SAR non-governmental organization from the developed world and one from the developing world. descrIPtIon oF sAr orGAnIZAtIons: FroM A deVeloPed countrY And FroM A deVeloPInG countrY SAR operations are dependent on an equation based on survivability and time. Survivability is a function of local conditions like water temperature, ability to swim, and the use of life saving equipment. This part of the equation thus provides us with an idea of how long a person in distress can survive. Time is a function of distance and speed of the rescuer. Put very simply the two are linked together; the longer the survivability the longer the time the rescue mission can take, either to cover longer distances or performing with lesser speed. On Lake Victoria, for example, with an average water temperature of 24-26 degrees centigrade, the problem of hypothermia is not an immediate concern. However, with limited swimming ability and experience, and the lack of personal flotation devices (life jackets) or other life saving devices, survivability is still low. Paired with an almost total lack of rescue capacity the situation becomes very serious. A recent example from a ferry accident on Lake Victoria shows a less than 50% survivability even though many local fishermen came to the rescue - 26 of 50 passengers drowned. Here the SAR organization has a task to fill, decreasing the number of accidents and increasing the survivability when an accident does occur. Being in place with dedicated resources for search and rescue, it can also save lives when all the other initiatives have been fruitless. SAR organisations are in many countries run as voluntary organisations, or as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s). A nongovernmental SAR association can assume full responsibility for all SAR operations in coastal waters, with special emphasis on saving lives among the fishing population or leisure boaters (the non IMO fleet). Operating models for this are available in several countries around the world. The normal setup is a national association with a small coordinating head office, also responsible for fundraising. The SAR stations are locally administered units supported by the mother organization. There exist different examples of levels of governmental support and the share of voluntary involvement. In Norway the government supports the Norwegian Sea Rescue Society enabling it to run 24 permanently manned rescue stations. Another 14 rescue stations are manned with trained voluntary crews funded by memberships and donations. In Sweden, the Swedish Sea Rescue Society (SSRS), founded in 1907, and hence having celebrated it’s 100 th anniversary in 2007, is one of the world’s leading independent SAR organizations. The SSRS operates approximately 64 rescue stations with about 140 rescue craft manned by some 1800 volunteers. All boats have been financed through private donations from individuals and organisations or through local fundraising. This model is extremely successful; taking care of more than 70% of all emergencies relayed through the Maritime Rescue Coordination Center (MRCC) in Gothenburg. The Swedish Sea Rescue Society receives no contributions at all from taxes or public funds, but is exempted from value added tax in regard to costs directly related to SAR operations. The examples above have one thing in common; the volunteer part of the work is performed by individuals with basically a stable income and a permanent living place. Their engagement replaces other leisure activities; instead of playing tennis you spend a couple of hours a week maintaining the rescue boat and training with the rest of the crew. Your professional life allows you to be on stand-by and to man the rescue boat within 15 minutes from a call-out. This can be compared to a “Volunteer Fire Brigade”. Furthermore, the potential “clients” have the chaPter6.medicineandwatersafety financial strength to contribute to the organization through donations, gifts and/or membership. In developing countries the living conditions are different, something that has to have an impact on how a rescue service is set up. A permanent and paid professional crew is required to ensure that there is a guaranteed core of competence. This will enable the SAR service to build competence, to maintain a high level of training and over time gain necessary experience. Complemented with a group of volunteers in training, to be used for activities in addition to the core SAR operations; this combination will create flexibility, redundancy, and a high state of preparedness. In December 2006 the first volunteer rescue station in East Africa was launched as a part of the National Lake Rescue Institute (NLRI) in Uganda. As a true development station it went into operation on the border lake between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Albert. The station itself was built upon two 40 ft steel containers and the rescue craft a locally built wooden boat with a 25 hp outboard engine. The crew was initially all volunteer local fishermen trained by an international SAR volunteer from the Swedish Sea Rescue Society. Since its establishment the Lake Albert rescue station in Kaiso alone has saved more than 255 people in distress (no data exist however, for people saved by wearing an NLRI lifejacket). For the NLRI this establishment was a milestone. After nearly five years of struggle the first station outside its headquarters was at last in operation. Soon to follow was a partnership station with the Ugandan Wildlife Authority (UWA) in Queen Elisabeth National Park, where the equipment and training were provided by NLRI and the crew consisted of UWA park rangers. Since then more stations have followed, partnership stations as well as independent stations, and today more than 50 crew members have been trained towards an internationally accepted standard. Putting the NLRI initiative in perspective it initially focused on Lake Victoria, where the number of casualties ranges up to an estimated 5000 per year. A trained crew, based on NLRI headquarter employed personnel, manned a small boat with a 25 hp outboard engine based just outside the Ugandan capital, Kampala. When a corporate social responsibility project, financed by a multinational oil company, was negotiated, the focus turned temporarily to Lake Albert. In this area oil prospecting was taking place and the oil company wanted to manifest its presence by contributing to the local community. Supporting the NLRI existing community based initiatives to establish a rescue service on that lake was one of the chosen projects. Financing the rescue station as such was the first step, recruiting and training a crew towards an international standard as first responders to maritime and environmental emergencies was the second, and finally sea safety awareness training and information, the third. The latter was performed with the station and the crew as a platform. In addition to the emergency response capability the local spin-off has since become obvious; life vest production and promotion, fishermen’s clubs, football tournaments, kids’ sea safety training and information etc. Without a sustainable financial solution it is unlikely that the development will continue and the death rate on the great lakes will continue to be appallingly high. Currently a project funded by the African Development Bank is attempting to find a private-public partnership solution to this very problem, but eventually it will depend on political will and involvement. dIscussIon The case study above shows that local initiatives can make a difference. For commercial traffic, operating within the framework of IMO regulations, governmental organizations can enforce international safety regulations thus decreasing the accident rate and the need of SAR operations. Operating offshore furthermore increases the need of equipment suitable for the specific environment of the high seas, and this activity is more suitable for a governmental body. However, in other waters and for other categories of maritime activities, the non-governmental SAR organization is a vital complement; cooperating with (and within) the 385
BiomechanicsandmedicineinswimmingXi local communities; providing education, training, and promoting the use of life saving equipment. It is also a cost effective solution to have efficient and dedicated local rescue units handling smaller operations in coastal areas or inland lakes, rather than large navy units or coast guard ships. A non-governmental organization also has the possibility to access external funds not available for nation states. The establishment of local, community based, SAR units has been advocated before in different forums. A report for ILO (Ben-Yami 2000) points out that: 386 “The way to go, therefore, is by identification of local (including traditional) institutions and local leadership that can, with some outside support, organize their own SAR and storm-safety services as well as other related projects. In this respect, NGOs can play a very useful role.” Furthermore, a report of the risks and dangers in the small scale fishery by Tamil Nadu, looking into more than 2000 maritime incidents, concludes that: “Existing community based search and rescue (SAR) efforts to be reviewed and to explore possibilities of capacity building and setting up of community based SAR units in village clusters. The Coast Guard cannot respond to every call for help from small boat fishermen” (Swamy 2009). This however requires a basic organizational infrastructure and basic funds to create stability and sustainability. This is of national interest and thus in the interest of governments and should therefore be actively supported. It would be reasonable to assume that every dollar spent on a private, non-governmental SAR service would have at least a threefold multiplier effect on the initial spending due to the ability of an NGO to mobilize volunteers and raise other funds when properly established. Furthermore, in comparison with spending on governmental SAR capacity the NGO will not only provide SAR capacity but will also engage local communities, advocate safe practise, and work actively to decrease the number of SAR operations as such, something that a navy or a coast guard unit would have problems to achieve. SAR organization initiatives can arise from anywhere, through cooperatives, fishermen’s organizations, maritime training centres or any source imaginable. Where it happens is not important, it is the engagement that matters and that should be supported when the idea and model is proven. Even though there is little statistical information to be obtained on the matter, what there is indicates that the main category of fatalities on the seas around the world is related to artisanal fishing and small scale transports/ferries, mainly in coastal waters within 20 nautical miles (NM) from the shore. An estimated 24 000 lives are lost globally within this category according to an estimate by ILO (1999). This further strengthens the argument; that non-governmental SAR service is a good complement to governmental maritime units where the NGO shares the responsibility and caters for the safety of coastal activities such as fishing, and the governmental units operate on the high seas with large commercial traffic. Such a solution is beneficial for all parties; for the fishing communities engaging in their own safety, bringing down the rate of accidents and increasing the survivability of persons in distress, and for the governments solving a problem at a limited cost and being able to focus on other pressing issues. The social impact of a SAR organization should not be underestimated. Around Lake Victoria it is estimated that every fisherman has up to seven (7) dependants. If 5000 lives are lost, theoretically another 35000 will lose their primary means of living. This will first of all affect women and children. Thus a SAR organization also has an impact on gender issues. Furthermore, the Lake Albert rescue station example has also shown that within the community, the rescue station as such has become a vehicle of progress. When providing a rural fishing community with a focal point, with some kind of reliable organization and infrastructure, other activities can utilize the facilities. The rescue station has, for example, become an arena for not only the promotion of safety awareness but also for HIV/AIDS information campaigns and women’s clubs - promoting cultivation and craftsmanship (life jacket production) and thus increasing womens’ financial independence. Last but not least, if a region has an ambition to establish itself as a tourist destination a certain level of safety and security is important. conclusIon A non-governmental SAR organization is a multifaceted tool to handle several different problems. The primary contribution might be to facilitate a change of attitude vis-à-vis safety at sea issues, but the total effect will be broader than that. The social benefits, the community engagement, and the impact of less scattered families will be considerable. For a government it is a cost effective route to fulfilling the international obligations of the sea. reFerences Yami, B. (2000). Risks and dangers in small scale fisheries: an overview. ILO Working paper SAP3.6WP147, Geneva, Switzerland ILO (1999). Safety and health in the fishing industry. Report for discussion at the Tripartite meeting on safety and health in the fishing industry. ILO, Geneva. Can be obtained at http://www.ilo.org/public/ english/dialogue/sector/techmeet/tmfi99/tmfir.htm Swamy, J (2009). Risks and dangers in the small scale fisheries of Tamil Nadu. SIFFS. Can be obtained at http://seasafetysouthasia.org AcKnoWledGeMents: The authors would like to thank Joanna McDonald and Sip Wiebenga for their important input and support, and making this paper possible to present.
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average VO2 measured during resting
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Figure 2. Repeatability of the LTin
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Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI

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