Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI

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(test 2), however, all BACs are integrated in clusters, the distances are smaller and the nodes are in regularity. After the twelve weeks training period (test 3) the structure is quite stabilized, some distances are once again reduced (p. E. 9 and 10, 5 and 6) but also some (p. e. 3 and 4, 7 and 8) increased. The following schedule shows a way to transfer the structure of the dendrograms above into a schedule to compare it directly. Each dendrogram Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming XI / Chapter 4 Training Page 111 shows 2 main groups, but only test (2) and (3) shows 3 and 4 clusters. At test (2) there are 6 nodes (2 clusters) in the main group 1, at test (3) 7 nodes (3 clusters). According to main group 1 are in main group 2 at test The following (2) 4 nodes schedule (1 cluster) shows a way and to at transfer test the (3) structure 3 nodes of (1 the cluster). dendrograms The above real into Biomechanics a schedule and to compare Medicine it in directly. Swimming Each XI dendrogram / Chapter shows 4 Training 2 main groups, Page but only 111 distances test (2) and between (3) shows 3 the and single 4 clusters. nodes At test cannot (2) there be are shown 6 nodes in (2 the clusters) schedule, in the these main group details 1, at are test only (3) 7 visible nodes (3 directly clusters). in According the dendrograms. to main group 1 are in main group 2 at test (2) 4 nodes (1 cluster) and at test (3) 3 nodes (1 cluster). The real distances between the single nodes cannot be shown in the schedule, these details are Tab. The following 1 Schedule schedule of representational shows a way to transfer only visible directly in the dendrograms. structure the structure for one of the swimmer dendrograms at above Biomechanics three into a schedule and to Medicine compare in it directly. Swimming Each XI dendrogram / Chapter 4 Training shows 2 main groups, Page but 111 only tests test (2) and (3) shows 3 and 4 clusters. At test (2) there are 6 nodes (2 clusters) in the Tab. 1 Schedule of representational structure for one swimmer at three tests main group 1, at test (3) 7 nodes (3 clusters). According to main group 1 are in main Number of Number of group Test 2 at test (2) 4 nodes (1 cluster) BAC and main at test group (3) 1 3 nodes BAC (1 main cluster). group The 2 real main groups Cluster The distances Test following between 1 2 schedule the shows single 0 a nodes way to cannot 1,2,4 transfer be the shown structure in the of schedule, 5,8,9,10,7,3 the dendrograms these details above are into only Test a schedule visible directly 2 2 to compare in the 3 it dendrograms. directly. Each {9,10} dendrogram {1,2,3,4} shows {5,6,7,8} 2 main groups, but only test Test (2) 3 and 2 (3) shows 3 and 4 4 clusters. {8,9,10}{1,2}{3,4} At test (2) there are 6 nodes {5,6,7} (2 clusters) in the main Tab. group 1 Schedule 1, at test of representational (3) 7 nodes (3 structure clusters). for According one swimmer to main at three group tests 1 are in main group The Test improvement 2 at Number test (2) of in 4 mental nodes Number (1 representation cluster) of improvement in mental representation BAC and shown main at test group as (3) example 3 shown 1 nodes BAC for (1 as one example main cluster). swimmer group The for 2 above real one distances also led between main groups to improvements the single Cluster in nodes the swimming cannot be parameters shown in the (also schedule, shown for these one details swimmer are only swimmer Test below). visible 1 2 According directly above in also to the REISCHLE dendrograms. led 0 to improvements 1,2,4 (1988) and Arellano in the et swimming 5,8,9,10,7,3 al. (1991) the parameters following Test 2 2 3 {9,10} {1,2,3,4} {5,6,7,8} (also parameters shown were for selected one swimmer to demonstrate below). technical According progress: to REISCHLE first, stroke length (1988) and Tab. Test second, 1 Schedule 3 2 stroke index of representational 4 which combines structure {8,9,10}{1,2}{3,4} stroke for length one swimmer and swimming at {5,6,7} three speed. tests and Arellano The following Number schedule of et al. Number (1991) lists the of the following parameters were selected to Test time (10 metres) (t), speed (v), stroke rate (sr), length demonstrate The improvement (d) and the stroke technical in mental index (si) of progress: representation BAC main the example first, shown group swimmer. stroke as example 1 BAC length for main and one second, swimmer group 2 main groups Cluster stroke above Test also 1 led 2 to improvements 0 in the swimming 1,2,4 parameters (also 5,8,9,10,7,3 shown for one swimmer Test index below). which combines stroke length and swimming speed. Tab. 2 Biomechanical 2 According to REISCHLE data 3 (1988) of one swimmer {9,10} at {1,2,3,4} and Arellano et test (1), (2) and {5,6,7,8} al. (1991) the following (3) Test The parameters 3 following 2 were Test 1 schedule selected 4 to lists demonstrate the {8,9,10}{1,2}{3,4} Test time technical 2 (10 metres) progress: {5,6,7} (t), first, speed stroke Test 3 (v), length stroke and second, stroke index which combines stroke length and swimming speed. rate t (sr), v length sr d (d) and si the t stroke v sr index d (si) si of the t example v sr swimmer. d si The The 6.52 improvement following schedule 1.53 53 in 1.76 mental lists 4.08 representation the time (10 6.64 1.51 47 shown metres) 1.92 as (t), example speed (v), 4.36 6.66for stroke 1.50 one swimmer rate (sr), 48 1.88 above length 4.23 also (d) 6.64 led and 1.49 to the improvements stroke index (si) 50 1.81 4.10 in of the the 6.22 swimming example swimmer. 1.57 46 parameters 2.04 5.02 (also 6.64 shown 1.51 for 48 one 1.88 swimmer 4.27 below). Tab. 2 According Biomechanical to REISCHLE data of (1988) one swimmer and Arellano at test et al. (1), (1991) (2) and the following (3) parameters Tab. 2 Biomechanical From test 1 were to test selected data 2 (training to of demonstrate one swimmer at test (1), (2) and (3) period) the technical average progress: speed increased first, stroke a little, length the stroke and second, Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 length clearly, stroke index while which the stroke combines rate decreased. stroke length Thus, and the swimming stroke-index speed. also increased. At The t v sr d si t v sr d si t v sr d si test following 3 the average schedule speed lists decreased the time a bit. (10 The metres) stroke (t), rate, speed the (v), stroke stroke length rate and (sr), the length stroke (d) 6.52 1.53 53 1.76 4.08 6.64 1.51 47 1.92 4.36 6.66 1.50 48 1.88 4.23 index and were the stroke stabilized index on (si) a level of the between example test swimmer. (1) and test (2). 6.64 1.49 50 1.81 4.10 6.22 1.57 46 2.04 5.02 6.64 1.51 48 1.88 4.27 The following table shows the mean data of relevant parameters (test 1, 2 and 3) of the Tab. test 2 group. Biomechanical data of one swimmer at test (1), (2) and (3) From test Test 1 to 1 1 to test test 2 (training 2 (training period) Test the period) 2 average the speed average increased speed Test a little, 3 increased the stroke a little, length clearly, while the stroke rate decreased. Thus, the stroke-index also increased. At Tab. t 3 v the Statistical stroke sr data d length for si test clearly, group t v while sr the d stroke si rate t decreased. v sr d Thus, si the 6.52 test 3 the average speed decreased a bit. The stroke rate, the stroke length and the stroke Parameter 1.53 53 1.76 4.08 Test 6.64 1 (mean, 1.51std) 47 stroke-index Test 1.922 4.36 (mean, 6.66 std) 1.50 Test 48 3 (mean, 1.88 4.23 std) index were stabilized also increased. on a level between At test test 3 (1) the and average test (2). speed decreased a bit. 6.64 Speed 1.49 50 1.81 4.10 1.53 6.22 ± 0.09 1.57 m/s 46 1.52 2.04 ± 5.02 0.11 6.64 m/s 1.51 1.49 48 ± 1.88 0.09 m/s 4.27 The following table shows the mean data of relevant parameters (test 1, 2 and 3) of the Stroke stroke rate rate, the 49.61 stroke ± length 4.2 /min and 47.81 the stroke ± 3.26 index /min were 46.70 stabilized ± 4.18 /min on From test group. a Stroke level test length between 1 to test 2 test (training 1.85 (1) and ± period) 0.16 test m the (2). average 1.92 speed ± 0.19 increased m 1.93 a little, ± 0.20 the stroke m length Stroke clearly, index while the stroke 4.36 ± rate 0.72 decreased. 4.50 Thus, ± the 1.01 stroke-index 4.34 also ± increased. 0.80 At test The Tab. 3 the following 3 Statistical average speed data table for decreased shows test group the a bit. mean The stroke data rate, of relevant the stroke length parameters and the (test stroke 1, index Parameter Test 1 (mean, std) Test 2 (mean, std) Test 3 (mean, std) 2 The and speed were 3) stabilized of remained the test on nearly a group. level the between same over test (1) the and 3 tests. test (2). Comparing the stroke length, The Speed 1.53 ± 0.09 m/s 1.52 ± 0.11 m/s 1.49 ± 0.09 m/s however, following an increase table shows of approx. the mean 0.07 data m (60 of strokes relevant = parameters 4.20 m) and (test again 1, 2 1 and cm to 3) test of the (3). test Stroke rate 49.61 ± 4.2 /min 47.81 ± 3.26 /min 46.70 ± 4.18 /min The group. stroke rate decreased by approx. 2 and 1 strokes per minute. The stroke index Tab. Stroke length 1.85 ± 0.16 m 1.92 ± 0.19 m 1.93 ± 0.20 m increased 3 Statistical from test data 1 to test for 2 test and group decreased to test 3. Although there are small Tab. Stroke 3 Statistical index data for 4.36 test group ± 0.72 4.50 ± 1.01 4.34 ± 0.80 Parameter Test 1 (mean, std) Test 2 (mean, std) Test 3 (mean, std) Speed The speed remained nearly 1.53 ± 0.09 the same m/s over 1.52 the 3 ± tests. 0.11 m/s Comparing 1.49 the ± stroke 0.09 m/s length, Stroke however, rate an increase of 49.61 approx. ± 4.2 0.07 /min m (60 strokes 47.81 = ± 4.20 3.26 m) /min and again 46.70 1 ± cm 4.18 to test /min (3). Stroke The stroke length rate decreased 1.85 ± by 0.16 approx. m 2 and 1.92 1 strokes ± 0.19 per m minute. 1.93 The ± 0.20 stroke m index Stroke increased index from test 1 4.36 to ± test 0.72 2 and decreased 4.50 ± to 1.01 test 3. Although 4.34 ± there 0.80 are small The speed remained nearly the same over the 3 tests. Comparing the stroke length, however, an increase of approx. 0.07 m (60 strokes = 4.20 m) and again 1 cm to test (3). The stroke rate decreased by approx. 2 and 1 strokes per minute. The stroke index increased from test 1 to test 2 and decreased Biomechanics to and test Medicine 3. Although in Swimming there XI are / Chapter small 4 increases, Training only the Page stroke 112 rate changed significantly (shown by the Wilcoxon signed-rank test). The speed remained nearly the same over the 3 tests. Comparing the stroke length, however, an increase of approx. 0.07 m (60 strokes = 4.20 m) and again 1 cm to test (3). The stroke rate decreased by approx. 2 and 1 strokes per minute. The stroke index increased from test 1 to test 2 and decreased to test 3. Although there are small increases, only the stroke rate changed significantly (shown by the Wilcoxon signed- The rank test). following table shows the mean data of relevant parameters (test 1, 2 and 3) of the control group. The following table shows the mean data of relevant parameters (test 1, 2 and 3) of the control group. Tab. 4 Statistical data for control group Tab. 4 Statistical data for control group Parameter Test 1 (mean, std) Test 2 (mean, std) Test 3 (mean, std) Speed 1.38 ± 0.10 m/s 1.30 ± 0.11 m/s 1.28 ± 0.08 m/s Stroke rate 49.63 ± 3.62 /min 48.65 ± 3.87 /min 48.80 ± 4.62 /min Stroke length 1.68 ± 0.15 m 1.62 ± 0.16 m 1.57 ± 0.18 m Stroke index 3.23 ± 0.66 2.81 ± 0.70 2.60 ± 0.56 In contrast with the test group, the control group does not show any increases. Rather the speed and the stroke distance decreased, while the stroke rate nearly remained at the same level. DISCUSSION Comparing the test-group-results of the three tests after six weeks training including a SDA-M based intervention the increase of stroke length at a similar speed is obvious. This can also be shown for the stroke index (test 1 to 2, which is based on speed and the stroke length. Longer stroke length is an indicator of an increased effect of the stroking action. In combination with lower stroke rate a total increase of efficiency is obvious. chaPter4.trainingandPerformance In contrast with the test group, the control group does not show any increases. Rather the speed and the stroke distance decreased, while the stroke rate nearly remained at the same level. dIscussIon Comparing the test-group-results of the three tests after six weeks training including a SDA-M based intervention the increase of stroke length at a similar speed is obvious. This can also be shown for the stroke index (test 1 to 2, which is based on speed and the stroke length. Longer stroke length is an indicator of an increased effect of the stroking action. In combination with lower stroke rate a total increase of efficiency is obvious. However, without the specific workouts the test group also could not stabilize the high level reached at test 2. The chosen parameters also decreased a bit, but reached at test 3 a level between test 1 and test 2. In contrast of the test group, the control group remained on the level of test 1 or the results decreased. Without using Split or doing the specific technique training, they did not show the same changes as the test group. Even though the changes were mostly not statistically significant, the intervention made an impact: the participating swimmers increased their cognitive ability and thus enhanced their own power to optimize their aquatic space activities. But this seems to be a first, small step – without the specific training the changes could not be stabilized at the high level of test 2. Either the intervention-time was too short or it might be important to repeat the specific workouts for better stabilization. Presumably, if the SDA-M based stroking instructions causes large-sale changes, the concerned swimmers were not able to automate the new motion sequence in the short time of the intervention. Especially when they try to swim at maximal speed, they did not manage to continuously produce the motion sequence at an optimized level or they did not reach maximal speed, they swam more slowly than on the pre-test. conclusIon The elected method stands the test, although it will be important in the future to study again this type of training in the domain of motor control and motor learning, for example during a longer intervention. In the future, technique training offers great potential for more effective training of age-group swimmers. In long term performance planning, more time should therefore be spent on the education of motor competence starting early in the swimmer’s education. With advanced swimmers the cognition based technique training can be used to work systematically on the cognitive representation of the motion in theory and practice. However, this requires better education of the swimmers in the theoretical background of the different strokes. reFerences Arellano, R & Pardollp, S. (1991). An evaluation of changes in the crawl-stroke techniques during training periods in a swimming season. In D. Mac Laren, T. Reilly, A. Lees (eds.), Swimming Science VI (S. 143-149). London. Bläsing, B., Tenenbaum, G. & Schack, T. (2009). The cognitive structure of movements in classical dance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 350-360. Engel, F. & Schack, T. (2001), Das Coachingkonzept ProMent in der Praxis. Reischle, k., 1988: Biomechanik des Schwimmens. Bockenem. Schack, T. (2002). Kognitive Architektur von Bewegungshandlungen. Unveröffentlichte Habil. Köln. Schmidt, A. C. (2009). Kognitionsbasiertes Bewegungstraining und Talentförderung. Eine Interventionsstudie zur Kraularmbewegung. Göttingen. 285
BiomechanicsandmedicineinswimmingXi Assessing Mental Workload at Maximal Intensity in Swimming Using the NASA-TLX Questionnaire schnitzler, c. 1 , seifert, l. 1 , chollet, d. 1 1 CETAPS EA 3832, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Rouen, France The sensitivity of the NASA-TLX questionnaire to gender, age and expertise was investigated. Fifty subjects performed a 400-m front crawl at maximal velocity. Then, 100-, 200- and 300-m trials at the same velocity were performed. Mental workload was assessed. The results showed that total subjective workload (TWL) increased gradually with the distance (p
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average VO2 measured during resting
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etween experimental groups and cont
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Pahlen Norge AS Pahlen Norge AS Cha
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