Energy Systems and Technologies for the Coming Century ...

nies that provide upstream and downstream services, such as recycling, repair of solarcells, PV installation, and engineering services for manufacturers.Public research organisations: the Institute of energy technology and the SINTEFgroup, and here especially the Sintef institute for Materials and Chemistry. The largestuniversities in Norway also do PV R&D, the University of Oslo and the NorwegianUniversity of Science and Technology (NTNU). The collaboration between Sintef andthe NTNU led in 2006 to the Gemini centre for solar PV. IFE has built its own productionline for solar cells and other necessary laboratory equipment and is since 2008leading the Norwegian Research Centre for Solar Cell Technology, Solar United, whichunifies major public and private actors in Norwegian solar PV.Institutional setting: There are more generic innovation policy instruments, such as theNorwegian R&D tax credit scheme SkatteFUNN, the Government Consultative Officefor Inventors, and the Public and Industrial Research and Development Contracts administeredby Innovation Norway. The RCN is by far the most important public R&Dfunding organisation. The RCN had and has several R&D programmes which havecontributed to funding of solar PV technology development (Klitkou & Godø, 2010).Here is special focus on cooperation between private and public actors.Traditionally, the Norwegian metallurgical industry has developed with access to cheaphydropower. In recent years, because of liberalisation of energy markets, this haschanged; electricity prices have still increased. Energy intensive industries, e. g.aluminium processing, have started to move abroad. Processing of silicone for solar PVhas developed as an extension of the traditional metallurgical industry, but hasintroduced frontline concepts of automation and lean production. However, scarcity ofprivate financial resources endangers further development of technology.In the wafer industry, there is a pressure to increase efficiency of first generation PVwithin the framework of the existing technology. Beside this there exist also second andthird generations of PV. Second generation PV is so-called thin-film solar cells (CIGS -copper indium gallium selenium), which are cheaper to produce, but less efficientcompared to silicone and based on rare metals. Third generation PV try to achieve ahigher power efficiency by arranging multi-layer ("tandem") cells made of amorphoussilicon or gallium arsenide. Other concepts are photo-electrochemical cells, polymersolar cells, nano-crystal solar cells or dye-sensitized solar cells and they are notcommercialised yet.Improvements of energy efficiency, lifetime extension and recycling of valuablematerials address scarcity of resources, raising energy prices and environmental impact.Efforts to improve the performance of silicon based PV will lower the costs per unit.Such efforts include defect engineering of the crystalline silicon material, thinner wafers,and the combination of solar cells with the concentration of light. Further up-scaling ofthe production of PV material and solar cells – both in Norway and outside – will lowercosts. Attempts to take control over the whole PV value chain give improved access toresources and the end-user market, and may allow higher economic growth in the future.Norwegian industry has to follow the international development of new generations ofPV to avoid a lock-inn into less efficient technology. The further development of newgenerations of PV cells applying nano-technology may give a further boost, but are stillfar from commercial deployment. The use of CIGS is probably less relevant because of alimited access to required materials. “As PV matures into a mainstream technology, gridintegration and management and energy storage become key issues. The PV industry,grid operators and utilities will need to develop new technologies and strategies to integratevery large amounts of PV into flexible, efficient and smart grids” (IEA, 2010a).Policy outlookGlobal climate change has put the increased deployment of solar PV on the agenda formany countries. Policy incentives and RD&D support this development. There is a trendRisø International Energy Conference 2011 Proceedings Page 83