Asking Questions - The Definitive Guide To Questionnaire Design ...

148 ASKING QUESTIONS
Putting the general question first also makes it easier for others to
compare their data with yours.
Unintentionally Activating Norms and Values
that Cause Biases
Many questions ask about attitudes that are grounded in values or
norms. Posing questions that engage the same or similar values may
activate thoughts about those values that then influence responses
to subsequent questions.
We mentioned earlier that there is a general tendency for
respondents to be consistent in their attitudes. This is particularly
true with value-based questions. The placement of questions relative
to one another may increase or decrease the cues for such value
consistency. A well-known study by Cantril (1944) showed that
questions about respondents’ willingness to allow Americans to
enlist in the British and German armies before 1941 was affected by
the order in which the questions were asked. A higher proportion
of respondents were willing to allow Americans to enlist in the German
army when this question followed a similar question about
enlisting in the British army than when it occurred in a reverse
position.
Similar order effects were reported by Hyman and Sheatsley
(1950) regarding reciprocity between the Soviet Union and the
United States in the free exchange of news. Recent studies have
shown similar effects in questions about trade deficits and import
quotas. In these situations, questions involving the same underlying
value (reciprocity) are asked about objects with differing degrees
of popularity. When the more popular item comes first, it appears to
have the effect of heightening the value, so that it applies in the
second and less powerful instance. There is no reciprocal effect
when reversed, however.
In this case, the rule is the opposite from that with general and
specific items. It is best to ask the question that has the highest level
of support first since it will not be affected by the order, but will acti-