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The Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC) is an independent government agency charged with fostering regional planning and collaboration for 101 municipalities in Metropolitan Boston, a mission which includes developing and sharing information. However, the agency’s limited budget prohibits ongoing large-scale manual data collection. There are also many public agencies, advocacy organizations, researchers, and other stakeholders who would benefit from more accessible and accurate information about planned and proposed development projects in the region. MAPC developed this tool not only for specific organizational purposes, but to also create a new public resource fitting its broad mission of fostering collaboration and discussion. 2. THEORY AND PREVIOUS WORK 2.1 Theory The development database was initially developed to facilitate inter-agency spatial information sharing. Phase I demonstrated the usefulness of tools that reduce the transaction costs of information sharing, but also the ongoing barriers to information sharing explained by inter-organizational relations theory. In addition, it demonstrates how technology can substantially improve sharing for certain contexts. The second phase plans to combine interagency information sharing processes with crowdsourcing. For the purposes of this project, we define crowdsourcing as a method to collect data from a large number of people using nonmonetary incentives. In practice, many government agencies are hesitant to share information, even when it falls within their legal mandate or would advance the ideal of government transparency. One explanation for this behavior is inter-organizational relations theory, which argues organizations avoid data sharing since it results in a loss of autonomy and increased interdependence [1]. Overcoming these barriers requires the negotiation of arrangements with mutual benefits, often requiring a lengthy process of problem-setting, cooperation, and coordination. A recent survey of inter-agency spatial information sharing found relationships started with staff interactions, but was often facilitated by formalized mechanisms such as contracts, regulations, and policies [2]. At a technical level, data sharing is further limited if the information resides in multiple information systems, or even paper records, and does not share a similar underlying structure. For information with modest sharing benefits, crafting data sharing agreements is cost-prohibitive for participants. In this case, absent a mandate, municipalities lack the resources and motivation to compile and report development data regularly. This project is also related to the e-government literature on intergovernmental information integration, an emerging area of egovernment research [3, 4]. Studies in this area use multidisciplinary methods to document the technology, organizational factors, interorganizaitonal context, and policy and social environment required for successful information integration. This project differs from much of the research in this area since it focuses on local government. The success of the project suggests local government is particularly ripe for technical innovation, since interagency norms of information sharing are present but technical infrastructures are lacking. In fact, the development database is an example of a locally-generated 461 infrastructure for information interoperability called for by Lansbergen and Wolken [5]. Crowdsourcing is dividing a large task into small pieces that can be completed by a “crowd” of participants. A study of successful crowdsourcing projects argues participants can be motivated by either money, “love,” or “glory” [6]. Crowdsourcing has been and is used to collect spatial information for crisis response projects and to develop the Wikipedia of maps, OpenStreetMap. Goodchild has proposed the term “volunteered geographic information” to cover the expanding datasets compiled by volunteers [7]. Linders has proposed this form of “citizen reporting” fits into a broader spectrum of ICT-enabled coproduction of public goods, where governments facilitate data collection [8]. The development team is considering how to operationalize nonmonetary incentives for the members of the “crowd” through game mechanics, such as providing public recognition for users who contribute information. 2.2 Data Crowdsourcing Examples This section describes two examples of similar projects that use crowdsourcing principles to collect spatial information about the urban environment. OpenStreetMap (http://openstreetmap.org) is often referred to as the Wikipedia of maps and geographic data. Anybody can login, create and edit this freely available world map. The project started in 2004, mainly as response to restrictive European public data policies and was the first high-profile project in the realm of volunteered geographic information. OpenStreetMap’s core is a simplified geographic data model, specifying “nodes” (points), “ways” (lines between points) and “relations” (relations between map objects), which are used to describe and map virtually many real world objects, such as streets, buildings, and other features. Since its beginning, the OpenStreetMap community has grown to about 700,000 users worldwide and provides detailed and up-todate maps for many parts of the world that are higher quality than available government or commercial maps. OpenTreeMap (http://opentreemap.github.com/) is an Open Source platform to search and contribute to a collaborative, interactive and dynamic map of a community's tree population. The project can be freely downloaded, customized and installed by any interested organization or community. It is not a hosted service and requires some resources to be deployed and used in a community or region. Users can sign-up and map, update data or add photos about trees in their community and work collaboratively on a publicly accessible tree inventory, which is traditionally a resource intensive process for local authorities. These two projects take different approaches to their geographic scale and user communities. OpenStreetMap maintains a centralized technical infrastructure for the world, and has developed a large user community who are able to edit any of the worldwide data. This approach seems suitable for a project with a simplified data model, a project goal to develop a worldwide map, and a small coordinating organization. The development database described in this article shares more similarities with the OpenTreeMap. In this case, an open source tool is designed to be implemented in specific places. This approach allows the system to be tailored to local conditions and implemented by local organizations which can leverage context-specific resources (such as interorganizational relationships and positive name recognition).
3. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT 3.1 Phase I 3.1.1 Overview The first phase of the Development Database project, implemented in late 2010, involved developing a novel web-based database to collect information from municipal staff about recently completed and planned developments. MAPC has previously collected this information through telephone calls and paper and online surveys. The web-based tool was developed because it provided several advantages: o Municipal staff can identify the location of a project on a map, resulting in greater spatial accuracy than collecting only addresses; o Projects can be automatically labeled with the appropriate municipality and Transportation Analysis Zone (TAZ) based on the designated location; o Municipal staff can review, edit, and update data collected in a previous survey, completed in 2007. MAPC collects development information for a variety of planning purposes. In this case, the agency was updating population and employment projections for use by the Boston Metropolitan Planning Organization in their 2035 Regional Transportation Plan. MAPC distributed the database web address and use instructions to municipal staff by email, and 64 municipal representatives created accounts to verify or enter development project information, resulting in a database of over 1,100 projects. Several technically sophisticated municipalities, including Cambridge, Somerville, and Boston, provided information in spreadsheet formats (including latitude and longitude coordinates) exported from internal records systems. These were manually combined with the data from the web-based system. The quantity of development projects in those municipalities would have been overwhelming for staff to manually enter individually. Following receipt and input of all municipal submissions, MAPC staff reviewed all projects in the database to confirm their location and status. The final product was made available as a spreadsheet and shapefile available for download from MAPC’s website. 3.1.2 Technical Architecture and Lessons Learned The development database web application was built with freely available open source software tools: o PostgreSQL with the PostGIS extension for spatial data is used as a database server; o Data modeling, data forms, user registration and o management is done with Django, a Python-based web framework; Leaflet is used as mapping tool for displaying basemaps such as OpenStreetMap, Bing Aerials or a custom MAPC Basemap) and a project point layer and also allows users to “drag and drop” markers on the map to add or adjust precise project locations. The interface for data manipulation was kept as simple as possible. Although the chosen software tools would allow more sophisticated functionality – for instance, instead of point locations project polygons could be drawn on a map – the strategy was to have low barriers for users in order to improve the response rate and level of user participation. 462 MAPC was fortunate to have a few friendly users during the first few days after the launch. This group provided feedback that helped to tweak the system and iron out elements in the interface that caused confusion for non-tech-savvy users. A quick round of usability tests before launch or roll-out would have been helpful to catch some issues in advance, and is the recommended method when primarily targeting a non-technical audience. The application must be easy to use in order to generate a valuable data stream in return. As a fallback, if users were not willing to use the online system, digital spreadsheets and paper maps were sent out to municipal staff on request. The strategy was maximize internal efficiency and have as many entries through the web application added and validated. From the perspective of the existing literature on information sharing, Phase I of the development database confirmed the significant potential that exists for technology to enhance sharing. However, notably the technology augmented existing practices and relationships between municipal employees and the agency. 3.2 Phase II 3.2.1 Overview The two goals of the second phase of the project is to expand the website’s functionality as well as opening the system to the general public. Preliminary development of this phase is complete, and a beta version was distributed to test users in July 2012. In order to enable broad participation but also ensure data quality, this phase of the database will accommodate several distinct user levels. 3.2.2 Development Process The first stage of the development process included outreach to the target constituencies for the “crowd”: municipal staff, public agencies, academics, researchers, the development industry, and journalists. Six semi-structured interviews were completed with municipal staff and the development industry, and public agencies and researchers were consulted. The outreach included questions soliciting feedback about the existing system, specific development attributes they desired, and requirements for data quality. Municipal staff expressed an interest in using the system to answer citizen information requests. Therefore fields were added for project website URLs, as well as for sales and listing agents. We also designed the system so each municipality could link to only the projects in their jurisdiction. The development community expressed an interest in entering information about projects for marketing purposes, using existing data for market research purposes, as well as to identify projects for business-to-business marketing purposes. As a result of this feedback we created a field for the lead developer. For the next stage of system development, the results from the outreach as well as MAPC’s internal data needs were used to develop a list of database attributes, as well as wireframe diagrams illustrating the revised system functionality and layout. 3.2.3 Website Functionality The first version of the development database included the ability to view all projects contained with a municipality, and view and edit the detailed attributes for a project. The second phase features
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2012 ALBANY, NEW YORK UNITED STATES
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Foreword The 6 th International Con
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Table of Contents Forward .........
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Session 10: ICTs & Governance Trans
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o Revival of Farming Community with
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International Steering Committee Jo
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Jim DAVIES, Computing Laboratory, U
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Session 1 Open Government Data
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the combination of their moral sent
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involve the creation of a Network o
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approach [28] to expose indicators
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4. IMPLENTING PAR In order to come
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conclusions that might arise rom th
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6.3 Large Scale Implementation In r
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Implementation Framework for Open D
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2) Usage: Assessed by quantifying t
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Increasing Kenyan Open Data Consump
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insight into available data resourc
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New Perspectives for Electronic Gov
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Not without reason therefore that t
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Another principle adopted by this s
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access to public information, chang
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Open Government 2.0: Citizen Empowe
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As a third finding, we also found a
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Session 2 E-democracy & Participati
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two polarized (optimistic or utopia
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through aggregating, shaping, and c
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in-depth expert interviews, and wer
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government made of citizens’ cont
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[8] Putman, R.D. 1994. Making Democ
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The third stream of studies reviewe
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interests, gaining access to inform
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2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 2.1 The P
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epresentatives from the three main
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While letters to the editor could b
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person. Table 5: Public sphere char
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[32] Yang, S., H. Lee, and S. Kurni
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In March 2000, just a couple of mon
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society the gap will close [2]. The
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A New Roadmap for Next-Generation P
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needs and the activities of policy-
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[18] Moss, S., (2010). Policy Model
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2.1. National digital inclusion exp
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advanced initiatives specifically d
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involved later [22]. Several instit
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among lecturers and students parall
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2. COMPARATIVE E-GOVERNMENT IN LATI
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governments can innovate or be disc
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2. E-GOVERNMENT AS IS 2.1. E-Govern
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ankings on the formation of nationa
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Framework for Useful Transparency W
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are doing a good job overall in reg
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The Circular Continuum of Agencies,
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continue to rely on dial-up Interne
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this time the authors continue to w
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government agencies should consider
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The critical success factors for we
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include customers and competitors,
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Websites or columns for MFWs In thi
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According to our investigation, the
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Construction of Inter-regional Publ
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The Development of Public Smart Pho
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Stage Description 1 st stage (Simpl
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Understanding Citizens’ Perceptio
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performance compared to those provi
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Session 5 Information Sharing, Mode
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arising as a result of these two bi
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forms for the system. At the same t
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further investigation of the relati
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5.3.10 Commitment Both personal and
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law. Virginia Journal of Internatio
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available to others” [5]. Informa
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conflict around information sharing
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for understanding information polic
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primarily on the information flows
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On Public Service Provision Informa
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employs workflow management technol
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o Information. Represents any infor
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common documents repository at the
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Figure 15. Full model of Passport I
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142
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policies to prevent government agen
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ecause the majority of the shared i
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A Patent System Ontology for Facili
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uilt on top of the semantics of RDF
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dynamically derive relevancy based
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Figure 6. Cross-‐Reference betw
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Category II: After identifying some
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[8] De Nicola, A., Missikoff, M. an
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oral option, it also allows for a m
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mapping of citizens would ensure un
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Here the authors wish to extend the
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http://www.ecp.gov.pk/Reports/SPStr
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will enable to assess and confront
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The underlying DeLP process is as f
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Preparing for Digital Curation Gove
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semester hours. Nine of the forty-f
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REGNET: Regulatory Information Mana
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Search Terms/ Concepts References D
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4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF REGULATOR
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1105.4 [6] Content of Section 1105.
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Pollution Prevention Guide for Vehi
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From Information-Poor to Informatio
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To address the divide, specific gov
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ICT for Development and the MuNet P
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competencies and skills, contributi
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ICT Policy in Africa - A Comparativ
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essential and necessary to guide th
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Kenya it is the minister for Inform
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of existing Public Internet Access
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the policy process e.g. formulation
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Laggards or Victims of Socioeconomi
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Figure 3. Facilities & Services Enj
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Promoting user uptake of e-governme
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It was also decided that it was nec
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Session 8 Measurement 1
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technology (IT) projects by governm
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Gap = 5; The weak and unreliable In
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6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful
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aspects are hardly discussed as the
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service level agreements. The inter
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concensus of all participants, the
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Furthermore, it is understood from
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Mobile Technologies on the Internet
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of mothers. Based on this reason, w
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5.1.4 Precedence Plots Based on com
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3 indicators are similar but not th
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Latitude 10°�S 9°�S 8°�S 7
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7. CONCLUSION According to ORDIT an
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include but not limited to: payment
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Categories Only XSS (%) Table 2: Di
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From table 3, it can be deduced tha
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Session 9 Social Media in Governmen
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1. What kind of social media servic
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4.2.1 Facebook Usage Figure 3. Perc
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Government Crisis Communication on
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estoration theory. He termed it as
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Table 3. Strategies for Pre-crisis
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accounts, among which seven message
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information in the crisis event sta
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Government Official Microblogs: An
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It is worth mentioning that, while
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Managing Chinese Government Microbl
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due to their tremendous influence,
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3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research is
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3) Established year: to specify the
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Figure 6. Language used in Hong Kon
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E-Government and Transformation of
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and domestic as well as internation
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4.6 Computerisation of Railway Tick
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abysmally low (2.25). In addition t
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Evaluating and Assessing a Typology
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Exhaustiveness indicates that all c
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Fig. 1 Spatial Unit Fig. 3. By whom
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SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE 1. RESULT OF SE
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Explaining the eGovernment Paradox:
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eGovernment services to a large ext
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policy agenda, as Heeks [10] says,
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Implementation Plan’s outcomes an
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Conference on eGovernment (pp. 90-9
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Investigating the Relationships bet
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hybrid or authoritarian regime. Bov
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Technologies, Tools and Web 2.0 in
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with resources, peers and experts w
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cluster were: Court Clerks; Court,
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(8 questions) and the third subpart
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http://ux.brookdalecc.edu/governanc
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the examination of the 311 program
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3. CASE STUDY METHOD This study use
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discuss departmental performance at
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or laptop computers. Internet conne
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[2] Anavitarte, L. and Tratz-Ryan,
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A Literature Review: IT Governance
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Interviewees Useful? Table 3. Inter
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Assessment of Success Factors of e-
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In view of different theoretical ap
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approximate figure of 60% of intern
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difference between its priority and
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Computer Supported Contractor Selec
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(2) conduction of the public auctio
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E-Government Success Factors in the
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creating different incentives and p
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American and the Caribbean Institut
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* Note: A 7-points Likert scale was
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showed to be useful, for collecting
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Public CIO, Figurehead or Decision-
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4.2 Operative CIO The Operative CIO
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Session 12 Implementation & Impact
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NYSED is responsible for collecting
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considered markers that are able to
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many of the MDGs. The direct impact
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strongly believed that local govern
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Goal Variables Measurements 2 3 Com
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Hypothesis Variables Endogenous Exo
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[16] Joreskog, K.G., and Sorbom, D.
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GoN has addressed the challenge to
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Figures 6 and 7. Computer classes a
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ICT-enabled Delivery of Maternal He
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3. E-HEALTH 3.1 ICTs and Health Com
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Chart 1 [40] GHANA - Total Telephon
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change their behaviour, improve the
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activities such as the MoTeCH partn
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If We Build it Will They Come? A Mi
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The methodology contains inherent l
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information about their broadband s
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Session 13 E-democracy & Participat
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attempt to influence future behavio
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Evidence shows that cognitive facto
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success factors for eParticipation[
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structure of the forum as well as t
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government as well as augmenting di
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Figure 1: Message content 4.3 Messa
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Figure 6: Associated levels 4.10 At
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improve the government management e
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Session 14 Information Structure
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2. HEALTHCARE IN RURAL INDIA Health
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Cloud Data Center Internet Service
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Reliability of data: data collected
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Information System (NHIS). A Nation
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charge are either not aware of the
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from this medium. Additional securi
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Page 512 and 513: For each case, semi-structured inte
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Page 538 and 539: noted. The list of basic e-services
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System For Measuring e-Gov: A Multi
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The Digital Divide’s Devaluing of
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[3] Coursey, D., & Norris, D.F. (20
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In Brazil, electronic accessibility
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2) The areas to which mobile and wi
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2. OVERVIEW OF DISTRICT MAPPING The
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3.4 Driving License Driving License
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and socio-economic backgrounds. The
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Figure - 2: eGovernment Implementat
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Tutorial: Digital Curation for Publ
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ut also provide sufficient detail o
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ABM is known as a bottom-up simulat
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5.2 Relation to Empirics “Where d
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Larson, Elizabeth .................
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