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116 Biological Control of Insect Pests: Southeast Asian Prospects Host plants Damage D. citri nymphs normally lead a sedentary existence clustered in groups, but will move away when disturbed. Adults are 2.5 mm long and jump when disturbed, whereupon they may fly up to 5 m before settling again. Seasonal migratory flights occur when adults fly up to about 7 m above ground level, entering mild winds which may carry them up to 4 km distant (Aubert 1990). Flying adults are attracted to yellow traps, which have been used for sampling (Aubert and Xie 1990). Adult D. citri have yellowish-brown bodies, greyish-brown legs and transparent wings. They have white spots or are light brown with a broad, beige, longitudinal, central band. D. citri feeds and breeds on the entire group of horticultural Citrus, with additional hosts in eight different genera belonging to the Aurantoidea (Aubert 1990). D. citri thus has a wider host range than the greening organism it transmits to citrus (see Damage). An indication of the relative suitability of its various host plants is shown in Table 4.7.2, although there may be local modifications of the groupings. This is probably due to different D. citri biotypes. For example, unlike RŽunion populations, Malaysian populations breed well on Bergera koenigii and, in the Philippines, adults are more attracted by Clausena anisumolens than by Murraya paniculata (Aubert 1990). Overall, jasmin orange, Murraya paniculata, is the preferred host and this plant is widely grown in Southern and Southeast Asia as an ornamental shrub and hedge plant. Although sap removal by large populations of D. citri can cause young foliage on flushes of growth to wilt, by far the most damaging effect of feeding is due to the transmission of a gram-negative bacterium which is the cause of citrus greening, known as huanglungbin in China (Xu et al. 1988a). Citrus greening is known to affect 3 genera of the subtribe Citrinae, namely Citrus, Poncirus and Fortunella (Aubert 1990). It has also been experimentally transferred from Citrus to Madagascar periwinkle ( Catharanthus roseus (Ke 1987). Once infected with the bacterium, D. citri remains infective for its lifetime, but does not pass on the infection transovarially. Amongst citrus, pummelo and lemon are less affected by greening than most other species. D. citri is the only known vector of citrus greening in Asia, although several other psyllids attacking citrus have been described: D. auberti (Comoro Is: Hollis 1987), Psylla citricola, P. citrisuga and Trioza citroimpura (China: Yang and Li 1984) and Psylla murrayii (Malaysia: Osman and Lim 1990).
Table 4.7.2 Preferred host plant Good host plants Common host plants Occasional host plants Diaphorina citri host plants (after Aubert 1990) Murraya paniculata ( jasmin orange) Citrus aurantifolia (lime) Bergera (Murraya) koenigii (curry bush) Leaf sucking Egg laying Nymphal development +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Citrus limon (lemon) Citrus sinensis (sweet orange) Citrus medica (citron) Citrus reticulata (mandarin) Microcitrus australisiaca* Citrus maxima var. racemosa (pummelo) Citrus hystrix ( Mauritius papeda) Citrus madurensis Clausena excavata Clausena lansium ++ ++ ++ Citrus maxima (pummelo) + + + Triphasia trifoliata* + + + Fortunella sp.* (kumquat) + + + Poncirus trifoliata* + + Ð Clausena anisumolens (anise) + + + Merrillia caloxylon* + Ð Ð Toddalia asiatica* + Ð Ð 4.7 Diaphorina citri 117
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Biological Control of Insect Pests:
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ii The Australian Centre for Intern
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iv 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Natural enem
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vi 4.14 4.15 4.16 Phyllocnistis cit
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1 Abstract Introduction 1 Biologica
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3 Introduction Introduction 3 Water
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Figure 1. Introduction 5 integratio
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Introduction 7 necessary those used
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10 Biological Control of Insect Pes
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Table 4.1.1 Natural enemies of Agri
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Table 4.2.1 Average figures (days)
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Table 4.2.2 Natural enemies of Anom
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Table 4.2.2 (contÕd) Natural enemi
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Table 4.2.2 (contÕd) Natural enemi
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Table 3 Order No. of +s 26 1. 41 2.
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4.4 Aphis gossypii India Myanmar ++
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Host plants Damage 4.4 Aphis gossyp
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4.4 Aphis gossypii the abundance of
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) HYMENOPTERA A
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) HYMENOPTERA A
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids o
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 59 Under humid c
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Table 4.4.3 Releases for the biolog
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 63 that the lyco
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 167 remain
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Table 4.10.1 (contÕd) Natural enem
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Asia 4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 171 C
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Table 4.10.2 (contÕd) Introduction
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 175 relati
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 177 to 30%
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 179 P. nas
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 181 Planta
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 183 Asian
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186 Biological Control of Insect Pe
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Table 4.11.1 Development times, and
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Table 4.11.2 Natural enemies of Leu
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4.12 Nezara viridula India Myanmar
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Biology Damage 4.12 Nezara viridula
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4.12 Nezara viridula 201 which cons
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Table 4.12.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids
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4.12 Nezara viridula 209 attracted
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Table 4.12.2 Introductions for the
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4.12 Nezara viridula 217 Doubt has
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4.12 Nezara viridula 219 Africa and
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BRAZIL 4.12 Nezara viridula 221 par
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4.12 Nezara viridula 223 parasitisa
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4.12 Nezara viridula 225 Anastatus
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THAILAND TONGA USA VANUATU 4.12 Nez
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4.12 Nezara viridula 229 Gryon sp.
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4.12 Nezara viridula 231 reproducti
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4.12 Nezara viridula 233 Ectophasio
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4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli India Myanm
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Biology Host plants 4.13 Ophiomyia
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Natural enemies 4.13 Ophiomyia phas
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EGYPT ETHIOPIA 4.13 Ophiomyia phase
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4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli 247 Three a
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Attempts at biological control 4.13
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The more important parasitoids 4.13
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4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli 253 its hos
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Comment 4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli 255
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The Major Invertebrate Pests and We
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4.15 Planococcus citri India 20° M
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Biology Host plants 4.15 Planococcu
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Table 4.15.1 Predators of Planococc
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Table 4.15.1 (contÕd) Predators of
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Table 4.15.1 (contÕd) Predators of
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Table 4.15.2 Parasitoids of Planoco
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4.15 Planococcus citri 299 The ency
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BRAZIL CHILE CHINA CUBA CYPRUS FRAN
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ISRAEL 4.15 Planococcus citri 303 R
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4.15 Planococcus citri 305 When the
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Table 4.15.4 Introductions for the
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Biology of important natural enemie
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4.15 Planococcus citri 313 Diomus p
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Comments 4.15 Planococcus citri 315
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni India 20° Mya
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Host plants 4.16 Trichoplusia ni 31
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 321 describing
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Table 4.16.2 (contÕd) Some predato
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 335 Introducti
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 337 Table 4.16
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Table 4.16.6 Natural enemies of Tri
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 343 13.85 days
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 345 Voria rura
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 347 when 2nd o
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5 References 349 Abasa, R.O. 1975.
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References 359 Beattie, G.A.C. and
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References 369 Cenda-a, S.M., Gabri
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References 373 CIE 1985. Distributi
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References 375 Compere, H. 1939. Me
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References 383 Elliott, N.C., Frenc
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References 385 Ferreira, A.J. and B
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References 387 Foerster, L.A., Quei
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References 389 Garcia, A. and Barri
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